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THE PRUNING -MANUAL 



Cfje Iflural Manual? 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



Manual op Gardening — Bailey 
Manual op Farm Animals — Harper 
Farm and Garden Rule-Book— Eaziey 
Manual of Fruit Insects — Slingerland and 

Crosby 
Manual op Weeds — Georgia 
Pruning-Manual — Bailey 
Manual of Fruit Diseases — In press 
Milk Manual — In preparation 
Manual of Home-Making — In preparation 
Manual of Cultivated Plants — In preparation 



THE 
PRUNING-MANUAL 



BEING THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION, 
.REVISED AND RESET, OF THE PRUNING -BOOK, 
WHICH WAS FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1898. 



L. H. BAILEY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 

1916 

All rights reserved 



^2^ 



5^ 



-^\^ 



Copyright, 1898 and 1916 
By L. H. bailey 



Set up and electrotyped April, 1898. 

Reprinted May, 1899; March, 1901; January, 1902; 

July, 1903; October, 1904; January, 1906; August, 

1907; June, 1908; July, 1909; June, 1910; June, 1911; 

June, 1912; February, June, September, 1914; 

July, 1915 



Eighteenth edition revised and reset. Published November, 1910 




DEC-i 1916 



'CI.A445SGri 



JD^ount Ipltasant Press 

J. Horace McFarland Company 
Hairisburg, Pa. 



WHY 

When the revision of this book on pruning was under con- 
templation, I apphed to a number of my friends for suggestions 
and advice. One of them rephed that he doubted the wisdom of 
pubhshing a separate book on the subject, inasmuch as it might 
have Ihe effect of over-emphasizing the value of pruning as 
compared with other practices in the growing of plants. 

It may surprise the reader if I express a certain sympathy 
with this point of view. Pruning is not a paramount or control- 
ling practice in horticulture, but only one of many. Yet it is one 
of the many, nevertheless, and all of them need discussion. I 
have always conceived of this book as something more and 
larger than a mere guide to the practice of removing parts of 
plants. We may group our plant-growing practice into several 
categories, as propagation, protection from enemies, handling 
the land and fertilizing, and to some extent the modification of 
local climate; there then remains an important range of sub- 
jects having to do with the character of the plant itself — its 
habit of growth, mode of flower-bearing and fruit-bearing, 
response to manipulation — that may be grouped broadly under 
the head of pruning, and until the grower is acquainted with 
this range he is not a horticulturist. This book, therefore, is a 
study of the character of plants, and I conceive the field it covers 
to be essential to one who would know plants mtelligently even 
though he never apphes his knowledge in the actual practice 
of pnuiing. 

In some kinds of plant-growing, the operations of pruning 
and training are essential to success. This is true in all careful 
growing under glass, as of cucumbers, carnations, roses, chrysan- 
themums, and of other plants that have a branching and many- 

(V) 



VI WHY 

flowered habit and in which the size and character of the 
individual blooms or fruits are important; not even a careless 
person will fail to observe the results of painstaking pruning 
when he visits one of the best flower shows. Neither will he 
miss the same lesson in any well-kept home-garden, comprising 
tomatoes pruned for stake training, good roses, and choice speci- 
men shrubbery. Even the free form of the specimens may be the 
result of careful direction on the part of the gardener, although 
perhaps it is very little in extent; in fact, it is often quite the 
mark of the good gardener that his plants are so well pruned and 
trained that his handicraft is not visible. In the raising of many 
kinds of fruits, very careful pruning is necessary to any satisfac- 
tory result, as in the growing of grapes and the cane-fruits. 

The ideas on pruning are largely notional. For a few years, 
under the teaching of a singularly successful man, a whole region 
may resort to the heading-in and the dwarfing of fruit-trees, or it 
may challenge and repudiate pruning altogether. This is true 
of all arts, which are likely to follow personal successes and which 
in the nature of the case are capable of many applications. All 
the greater is the need, therefore, for an understanding of 
such underlying questions as are common to the practice as a 
whole. 

We are dealing here with the results of long experience in the 
handUng of plants, as handed down from gardener to gardener, 
fruit-grower to fruit-grower, and as recorded in many periodicals 
and books. We are also dealing with tradition as well as with 
recordable experience, and it is often difficult to dissever one 
from the other. Only lately have we begun to secure careful 
experimental evidence on the effects of different practices; and 
this evidence is yet largely derived from such a small basis of 
investigation as not to be very convincing to the man of much 
experience. There was very little of this careful study when this 
book was written nearly twenty years ago. It is now necessary 
to modify or to qualify some of the statements that were then 



WHY VU 

accepted. In another twenty years we should have experimental 
confirmation or disproof of many of our common practices. The 
field is specially difficult of study by the method of experiment, 
due to inequalities in the conditions under which the plants grow, 
the differences between varieties, the meteorological changes, 
and the unknown stamina of the plants themselves. Very few 
of the present experiments in different places are really com- 
parable "with each other. Moreover, the gains in pruning are 
peculiarly the result of the art and skill of the pruner, and of his 
judgment of times and seasons and the nice balance of forces. 
The operator who really controls his plant is the one who com- 
bines tillage, fertilizing, pruning, breeding, and all the rest, into 
a harmonious method. 

In this edition I have tried to survey the field of contempo- 
raneous investigations in this subject, so far as the summary 
results are concerned, and to give my reader the benefit of the 
advice; but we are not yet ready, I fear, to overthrow much of 
the traditional practice — which is often the result of accumu- 
lated experience — on the basis of the recent findings. A good 
part of the value of pruning Hes in the conforming of the plant 
to regularity of shape and stature, making it convenient for the 
harvesting of the crop, rendering the plantation easy of tillage 
and spraying, and meeting the wishes of the grower; and to this 
extent, therefore, the justification of the practice does not rest 
on experimental evidence. 

I have now told my reader why the book was written, and 
why I have revised it. I trust that in this revised form the book 
will continue to find a field of usefulness until the subject is 
ready to be rewritten, by another author, on the basis of much 

accumulated study. 

L. H. BAILEY. 
Ithaca, New York 
September 1. 1916 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
The Fundamentals 



CHAPTER I 

The Philosophy or Rationale of Pruning 
Pruning is not a devitalizing process 

1. The argument from natural selection 

2. The argument from physiologj^ 

3. The argument from experience 
The conclusion 



3-14 

6 

7 

11 

14 

14 



CHAPTER II 

The FRriT-BrD 15-55 

The bud and the branch 15 

The leaf-bud and the fruit-bud 19 

The fruit-spur as illustrated in the apple 21 

The histories of three twigs 24 

The fruit-spur as illustrated by the pear 28 

The fruit-spur as illustrated in the plum and cherry ... 33 

The peach and the apricot . * 36 

Gooseberries, currants, and juneberries 40 

Co- terminal fruit-bearing 41 

Grapes and brambles 43 

Spring-flowering and summer-flowering 46 

How to distinguish the fruit-buds • . .47 

The development of the flower-bud or fruit-bud .... 51 
Summary synopsis of the positions of fruit-buds on the common 

fruit-trees 54 

ix 



X CONTEXTS 

CHAPTER III PAGES 

The Wounds and How They Heal 56-78 

An observation of knots . . 58 

The nature of the wound 61 

How to cut the branches 66 

When to cut the branches 73 

Dressings for wounds 75 



CHAPTER IV 

The Mending of Trees: Street-Trees . 
Tree surgery; pruning street -trees 
Pruning shade and street-trees 
Disinfectants for wounds and cavities 
Chaining and bolting trees . 
Treating deep and decayed cavities 



79-106 



92 
95 
99 



CHAPTER V 

The Principles of Pruning 

1. Heavy pruning of the top induces vegetative growth 

2. Heavy pruning of the root reduces vegetative growth 

3. Vigorous top-pruning tends to rejuvenate 

4. Pruned plant tends to resume normal habit 

5. Habit varies from youth to age .... 

6. One part may live at expense of another part 

7. Watersprouts are result of disturbed equilibrium 

8. Tendency is to grow from terminal buds . 

9. Heading-in develops lateral and dormant buds 

10. Obstruction above bud produces longitudinal growth 

11. Checking growth induces fruitfulness 

12. Fruit-bearing determined by habitual performance 

13. Obstructing movement of sap is special practice 

14. Pruning may be a means of thinning fruit 

15. Pinching tends toward fruit-bearing . 

16. The season of pruning may influence fruit-bearing 

17. Effect of pruning depends on locality and climate 

18. The heeling of wounds depends on many factors 

19. Dressings do not hasten healing .... 

20. The best pruning 



of plant 



107-141 
109 
111 
111 
114 
116 
117 
117 
118 
119 
121 
122 
123 
126 
131 
134 
136 
140 
141 
141 
141 



cox TENTS XI 

PART II 

The Incidentals 



CHAPTER VI 



PAGES 



Specific Advice 145-232 

The form of the top 145 

How to trim newly set trees 150 

Root-j)runing 163 

Subsequent treatment of the plants 166 

Management of top-worked trees 173 

Management of dwarf trees 176 

Ringing and girdling 181 

Renewing old trees; pollarding 185 

Pruning tools 189 

Remarks on given plants 196 

Apple 196 

Pear 198 

Peach 199 

Plmn, apricot 202 

Cherry 203 

Quince 204 

Blackberries and raspberries 205 

Currants and gooseberries 208 

Hedges 212 

Shade-trees 213 

Ornamental trees and shrubbery 214 

Pruning roses 216 

Pruning-list of ornamental trees and shrubs .... 218 



CHAPTER VII 

Some Special Modes of Training 233-266 

Trained trees 234 

Wall-trees, and others 239 

The patterns 245 

Trees and bushes in pots . . 260 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER VIII 



PAGES 



American Grape-Training — General Sketch . . . 267-293 

The spur and the renewal 269 

Pruning young vines 275 

When to prune 280 

Summer pruning 282 

The trelHs 283 

Tying 291 



CHAPTER IX 

American Grape-Training — The Various Modes or Systems . 

294-344 

The upright systems 298 

Horizontal-arm spur system 298 

Chautauqua system 303 

The high renewal 306 

Keuka system 316 

Fan-training 318 

The drooping systems 320 

The true or four-cane Kniffin 321 

Modifications of the four-cane Kniffin 326 

The two-cane Kniffin or umbrella system 329 

The low or one-wire Kniffin 330 

The six-cane Kniffin 330 

Eight-cane Kniffin 331 

Caynood, overhead, or arbor Kniffin 331 

The cross-wire system 333 

Renewal Kniffin 334 

The Munson system; Wakeman ' . 335 

Modified Munson 337 

Miscellaneous systems 338 

Horizontal training 338 

Post-training 339 

Arbors . 341 

The canopy trellis 341 

Remodeling old vines 343 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER A. PAGES 

The Pruning of the Vinifera Grape 345-400 

Glasshouse practice 345 

Vine-pruning in California ' 346 

Parts of a vinifera vine 349 

Terms referring to the form and structure of a cviltivated vine 

in Cahfornia 350 

The physiological principles 353 

The applications 356 

•Season, 356 — Amount of pruning, 358 — Young and old 
vines, 361. 

How the vine is pruned 362 

Spur-pruning, 362 — Cane-pruning, 364. 

Summer or herbaceous pruning 365 

Disbudding, 367 — Thinning of shoots, 367 — Topping the 
young vines, 367 — Suckering, 368 — Watersprouting, 
369— Pinching, 370— Topping, 371— Defoliating, 373— 
Thinning the fruit, 374 — Ringing, 375 — Removal of 
surface roots, 376. 

Wounds and their treatment 376 

Prunings and tools 378 

Pruning tools, 379. 

Systems and methods of vinifera pruning 380 

California systems, 381 — Periods of development, 389 — 
Choice of a system, 390. 

Supports 394 

Staking, 394— Trellising, 396. 
The pruning of the young vine 398 



Pabt I 

THE FUNDAMENTALS 




1. A five-year old lilac branch. 



THE PRUNING-MANUAL 

CHAPTER I 
THE PHILOSOPHY OR RATIONALE OF PRUNING 

A LILAC branch is shown in the engraving on the opposite 
page (Fig. 1). Its most interesting characteristic — as of any 
branch — is the fact that its various parts are unhke. We may 
discover some of the marks of these mihkenesses or differences. 

The branch is five years old. The dates mark the growth of 
each year. The terminals all grew in 1915. Since the branches 
of any year spring from buds formed the previous year, we can 
determine the normal method of branching of the lilac by 
examining the buds on the current year's growths. The ter- 
minal branches (three of them are marked 1915) are seen to have 
pairs of buds. The buds are on opposite sides of the twigs. 
The twig growth or branching of the lilac, therefore, should be 
a uniformly successive series of forks; but such is notably not 
the case. In other words, the normal method of branching has 
not taken place; and the reason is that not aU the possible 
branches developed. 

The effect of what may be called a struggle for existence is 
to be seen even in the buds on the current year's growths, as 
in the terminals. The largest and strongest buds are at or near 
the tips, and, as a rule, the buds are smaller and weaker the 
nearer one approaches the base of the shoot. This unequal 
development of the buds is probably associated in part with 
the degree of sunlight to which the different parts of the shoot 
were exposed, and other factors must be involved. 

(3) 



4 RATIONALE OF PRUNING 

It is further to be observed that the twm terminal buds are 
not always mates. The difference is marked on some of the 
tips. It is apparent that, if each of these buds develops a 
branch, the two branches will be very unlike. 

Let us now trace the history of this interesting hlac branch. 
The first or oldest growth ended at the point /, above the date 
1911. In 1912, a shoot grew from each of the side buds at the 
point 1911, and no other buds gave rise to branches. The twin 
terminal buds of the shoot a were at the point /, and each of 
these buds bore a cluster of flowers; the dead twig/ is the stub 
left after the gardener had cut off the clusters of seed-pods; 
but even if he had not cut them, the growth the next year would 
have taken place just the same from the twin buds at the point 
marked 1911. Note that none of the other buds on the branch 
a, lower down, made any effort to grow. 

In 1912, the two branches b b grew, forming a fork; but 
note that the left-hand branch made a much more vigorous 
growth than its mate; and note further that the left-hand 
member has kept the leadership. On each of these members, 
one branch started in the following year, 1913, at e and e e. 
One large bud, at o, remained dormant. Apparently no flowers 
were borne on the left-hand member at 1912 /, and the follow- 
ing year two branches developed from the terminal buds, the 
right-hand member, c, taking and holding the leadership. Note 
where the flowers were borne in successive years, at / in the 
different forks; but sometimes only one of the twin successive 
buds developed the following year. At the topmost part, an 
old fruit-cluster of the year 1915 still persists; and also the 
remains of a very small one on the lower right-hand fork, d. 

We may now come back to the lower right-hand member, b. 
Here we find that both terminal buds grew above 1912; but 
beyond this point the development is very irregular. 

This same branch, when in flower and early leaf, is shown in 
Fig. 2. The reader will be interested to identify the parts. 




2. The lilac branch of Fig. 1 as it burst into leaf and flower. 
(5) 



6 RATIONALE OF PRlINIXd 

Note that the branchlet e e has succumbed, making no attempt 
to grow; e is veiy feeble; but the dormant bud o has pushed 
forth into a lusty growth. 

Without waiting for the further details, we may say that 
the entire branch in Fig. 1 has made as many as 376 attempts 
at branches, although not all showing on the small drawing; 
this identical branch is before me as I write, and I have 
counted the buds and branches large and small. Of these 
attempts, or buds, about thirty have produced branches, and 
of these branches, some are already dead and others are very 
weak. That is to say, less than one in twelve of the buds has 
produced branches. If the observer were to see this branch 
ten years from now, he would undoubtedly find many more 
failures in it, or even the entire branch may have perished 
in the contest long before the Ulac bush reaches the limit of 
its life. 

The lessons to be derived from this study of the lilac branch 
may be appHed to all plants. They are: (1) there are more 
efforts at branches than there are branches; (2) there is, there- 
fore, a kind of struggle for existence between the parts; (3) dif- 
ferences arise and some branches die. In other words, plants 
must and do prune themselves. 

PRUNING IS NOT A DEVITALIZING PROCESS 

Perhaps every fruit-grower has observed evil effects to result 
from pruning, and many of these observers have reasoned there- 
from that pruning is itself injurious, or at least hazardous. 
One cannot, of course, overlook or explain away the examples 
of injury that follow pruning. They are patent even to the 
casual observer; but we must not exalt individual examples, 
however numerous, into proofs of the necessary injuriousness of 
pruning. There should have been at this day sufficient study 
and experience to enable us to pass on the merits of the prac- 



PRUNING IS NATURAL 7 

tice, as a whole. The case may be presented from three direc- 
tions — from the general nature or philosophy of the situation, 
from physiological considerations, and from common experience. 
It is not necessary, at this point, to discuss mechanical injuries 
to the trees as a result of wounds, for we all know that such 
injuries result from careless or injudicious pruning. The 
question is this: Does it injure a plant to remove a part of it? 
Is the entire growth of a plant necessary to its health and 
longevity? 

• / 

1. The argument from the natural situation. 

There is struggle for existence among or between all organ- 
isms. The world is now full, and there can probably be little or 
no permanent increase in the sum total of animals and plants. 
If one species increases, another decreases. Changes in the 
numbers of individuals are, therefore, largely matters of read- 
justment between different types. Each kind is held to a cer- 
tain equilibrium in relation to other kinds. It is easy to see 
that any species of animal or plant could completely occupy 
the surface of the globe, if it were to multiply to the full 
extent of its powers and if its progeny could survive. Not 
only do some species compete with others, but the individuals 
of the same species compete with each other for standing- 
room. 

Now, a tree is essentially a collection or colony of individual 
parts. Every branch, even every joint of the branch, may do 
what every other branch does — it may bear leaves, flowers and 
seed. Every branch competes with other branches; and there 
are more germs of branches — that is, more buds — than there 
can be branches on any tree, or in any other plant that by 
its nature produces many branches. No two branches of a 
tree are exactly ahke, but are what their position or condition 
or heredity makes them to be. Some are strong and some are 
weak. That is, there is no definite or proper size or shape for 



8 RATIONALE OF PRUNING 

any branch, as there is for the different members of an animal 
or of a flower. The limbs and organs of an animal are not com- 
petitors but co-partners, each performing some function or 
office that another does not, and they all attain a definite 
maturity of size and shape. But a branch in a tree-top never 
attains its full size until it ceases to grow and thereby begins to 
die. Branches are not so much organs as competing individ- 
uals. If all these statements are true, then three conclusions 
follow: there is a contest amongst the branches of a plant, 
and some of the contestants perish; the destruction of these 
branches may conduce to the betterment of those remaining; 
all the branches of a tree are not necessary to it, but some of 
them may be superfluous or even a detriment to it. In other 
words, pruning may follow as a natural course. 

Of course there is a kind of partnership between the branches 
of a tree, for we assume that each strong branch makes a con- 
tribution to the development of the root-system and trunk- 
system, and there is not the same separateness as between 
wholly different plants; yet the contest between these branches 
is apparent, and it has special significance to the present 
discussion. 

A wild black cherry tree came up near my door. The first 
year, it sent up a single straight shoot 19 inches high, which 
produced twenty-seven buds and one branchlet 8 inches long. 
This branchlet bore twelve buds. At the end of the first season, 
therefore, the httle tree had produced a total of thirty-nine 
buds, one branchlet, and 27 inches of growth. The second year, 
nineteen of these thirty-nine buds produced branches, and 
twenty did not start. These nineteen branches made a total 
growth of 231 inches, and produced 370 buds. The terminal 
branch or shoot grew 36 inches long. Here, then, was a little 
tree two years old and 43^ feet high which made the beginning 
toward 409 branches. At the close of the third year the little 
tree should have produced about 3,500 buds or branch-germs. 



PRUNING IS NATURAL 



It was next observed in July of its fourth year, when it stood 
just 8 feet high; instead of having between 3,000 and 4,000 
branches, it bore a total of 297, and most of them were only 
weak spurs from 1 to 3 inches long. It was plain that not more 
than twenty, at the outside, of even this small number could 
long persist. The main stem or trunk bore forty-three branches, 
of which only eleven had much life in them, and even some of 
this number showed signs of weakness. In other words, in the 
httle cherry tree, standing alone and without competition with 
other tfees, only one bud out of every 175 succeeded in mak- 
ing even a fair start toward a permanent branch; and this 
competition must have proceeded with greater severity as 
the top became more complex, had it not been sacrificed to 
the axe. 

The natural thinning of the top will continue in increasing 
ratio as long as the tree grows; and after a time this pruning 
will become more marked, for larger branches 
will be sacrificed. Probably less than one- 
fifth of the buds on any usual tree make 
branches, and less than one-fifth of the 
branches persist. The greater part of these 
branches die before they come to bearing 
age, no doubt, but some of them perish after 
they have attained to a considerable size. A 
forest tree grows a tall straight bole and the 
side branches are lopped off. If the same 
tree were to grow in an open field, it would 
branch low and form no tall bole. 

Another black cherry tree, two years old, 
found in the woods, is shown in Fig. 3. The 
first year it grew from the ground to a, and 
it bore buds at regular intervals — about "^*^^r" 
two dozen of them. The second year, the y.J^^ ^lf°uY S* 
termmal bud sent out a shoot to b, and cherry tree. 




^ 



10 



RATIONALE OF PRUNIN(; 




thirteen lateral buds gave rise to branches. Of these thirteen 
lateral branches, obviously only three stand any chance of 
living in the dense shade of the forest. In fact, four or five 
of the lowest twigs were dead when the picture 
was made, showing that the struggle for exist- 
once does not always result from competition 
among fellows, but may arise from the crowding 
of other plants. These three strong branches in 
Fig. 3 are less than 4 feet from the ground, but 
other old cherry trees standing near it had no 
branches within 15 and 20 feet of the ground. 
They no doubt branched low down, as this one, 
but the branches eventually died; and we there- 
fore have reason to conclude that, of all the 
branches on this little tree, only the terminal 
one, b, can long survive. 

One has only to look on the forest floor to see 
how freely trees have shed their twHIgs. The 
bole of a tree, then, is something like the 
remainder in a long problem of subtraction. 

A young tree of the sweet garden cherry is shoA\Ti in Fig. 4, 
and one of the Morello or pie cherry 
in Fig. 5. In the former, the up- 
Avard growths are marked, and the 
leader, or central trunk, has per- 
sisted. The latter has long ago lost 
its leader, this being the nature of 
the species, and the side growths 
are marked. Let the reader now 
calculate how many buds have per- 
ished (or at least failed to make 
permanent branches) in each of 
these trees, if they are supposed to . „.„ , ^^. , ., 

' '' ^^ o. Diffuse habit of the sour 

be seven years old. Any garden cherry. 



4. Upright 
habit of the 
sweet cherry. 




PRUNING NOT EXHAUSTING 11 

cherry tree will give him the probable number of buds to each 
annual growth. Even without the figures, it is evident that there 
are very many more failures than successes in any tree-top. 

It may be argued that artificial pruing is excessive; this 
may be true or it may not, but it is not different in kind from 
natural pruning, and it is warranted by the different objects 
in view. The ultimate result in nature is the production of 
seeds. Many small fruits, therefore, are secured. Man covets 
the fleshy part of the fruit, or a few large flowers, or some 
other character that may be of minor importance to the plant 
in nature. He must, therefore, thin the plant rigorously — 
reduce the struggle for existence — in order that size and quality 
may come before number. He simply deflects the energy into 
another channel. 

2. The argument from physiology. 

It is a common assertion that cutting off a limb is an injury 
because it removes a given amount of tissue in the production 
of which the plant expended effort; that is, that pruning 
exhausts the plant. This statement assumes that a plant has a 
certain fixed vitality, from which a given amount is withdrawn 
whenever a portion of the plant is cut away. This conception 
might be illustrated by supposing that a plant has an initial 
vitaHty represented by the figure 10; then, if one-tenth of the 
top is removed, there is left a vitality of 9. But this assumption 
is wholly gratuitous. The vitality of a plant is largely deter- 
mined by the conditions under which it grows — the character 
of the soil and treatment; and, as plants have no nerves, they 
cannot die of shock, as we sometimes hear it said. 

Every plant-grower knows that two plants of the same initial 
vigor may differ widely from each other in thrift and health- 
fulness at the expiration of five years, if given different soil and 
care. If the plant is largely what its food-supply and other 
environments make it to be, if it is constantly renewed and aug- 



12 RATIONALE OF PRUNING 

merited, then the removal of a part of it cannot destroy its 
vitahty imless the removal is so great as to interfere with the 
nutrition of the remaining parts. 

There is a balance or equilibrium between the feeding capac- 
ity of the plant — that is, its root-system and food-supply — and 
the superficial growth of the plant. The more active and effi- 
cient the root, the larger the top, other things being equal. If we 
remove a part of this top, there results (if the pruning is not 
too severe) a veiy rapid growth of many of the shoots, or new 
adventitious shoots may start. So properly pmned plants are 
likely to appear more vigorous than unpruned ones, because 
of the concentration of a somewhat constant supply into a 
smaller number of branches. Therefore, pruning must have 
something of the effect of manuring. It must not be supposed, 
however, that heavy pruning causes in the end a greater total 
growth, for the plant would probably attain its full stature 
either with or without pruning; but it is the general experience 
that a judicious pruning stimulates the remaining parts, par- 
ticularly if the plant is not itself vigorous. My observation and 
experience lead me to think that aimual pruning of all fruit- 
trees is desirable, but I am equally convinced that it does not 
pay, either in cost of pruning or in good to the tree, to cut out 
all the superfluous twigs at each pruning. These superfluous 
twigs may often be left until they are two or three or even four 
years old, with advantage. These unpruned twigs often afford 
a very useful shelter or sun-screen to the inner parts of the top, 
and they lessen the danger of over-pruning by which the 
nutrition of the tree may be injured. 

If pruning, of itself, is not injurious so long as it does not 
interfere with the nutrition of the plant, it is important that 
we understand how such interference occurs. A plant derives a 
certain part of its food from the soil in the form of water and 
soluble inorganic materials. These materials ascend to the 
leaves through the young wood, and become associated with 



THE ROOT AND fUE TOP 13 

organized materials like starch and sugar. These organized 
materials are used in the repair and growth of all parts of the 
plant, and they are, therefore, distributed to the leaves, twigs, 
trunk, and roots. The growth of the roots is, therefore, largely- 
determined by the amount and vigor of the top or leaf-bearing 
part. The removal of the greater part of the top may inter- 
fere, therefore, with the vigor of the plant by preventing the 
supply of a sufficient amount of elaborated food. This difficulty 
is sometimes experienced in the girdling or ringing of grape- 
vines, which prevents the distribution of the elaborated plant- 
foods to the roots. It should be said, however, that the grape 
is pruned the most severely of all fruits, and it is, therefore, 
easy to overstep the danger line; and yet it is strange that while 
certain writers disparage the pruning of trees they do not object 
to the common pruning of the vine. In fruit-trees the examples 
of injurious interference with nutrition by pruning are unusual, 
and they need not be further considered here. This is proved 
by the good results which so often follow the heroic treatment 
of top-grafted trees. 

It does not follow, however, that very heavy pruning, and 
particularly the removal of very large branches, is advisable, 
except in the unusual necessity to reconstruct the top of a 
long-neglected or devitalized tree. The removal of very large 
limbs exposes dangerous wounds, it is likely to open the tree so 
much that some of the remaining parts scald and borers 
secure a foothold, it may despoil the symmetry or convenience 
of the tree, and it is possible to prune a top so heavily that 
the root-system is restrained in growth from lack of nourish- 
ment; and aside from all this, the cutting away of very large 
branches often indicates a lack of enterprise and forethought 
on the part of the grower, and suggests the feeling that he 
may be remiss in all his operations. But while we discour- 
age the removal of branches 3 and 4 inches in diameter, 
it is not because such practice is in itself a devitalizing pro- 



14 RATIONALE OF PRUNING 

cess. The removal of large branches now and then is probably 
preferable to total neglect. 

3. The argument from experience 

One of the commonest absurdities in our horticultural 
literature is the admonition to prune only with a knife, thereby 
avoiding the cutting of large limbs, while there is not an 
orchardist in the country who practises this advice if he prunes 
thoroughly. This knife-pruning, or finger-and-thumb pruning, 
as advised by some, may be practicable in garden work but not 
in commercial orcharding. Well-pruned trees live as long as 
those unpruned, and they may Uve longer and produce more 
during their lifetime from the fact that good care in pruning is 
usually accompanied by good care otherwise. 

But suppose that pruning is a devitalizing process — ^what 
then? Even then we could not afford to discontinue it. The 
gains in size and quality of bloom or foliage or fruit, in ease of 
cultivation and spraying, in uniformity of product, are advan- 
tages that progressive horticulture can never forego. One does 
not advise a rose-grower or a grape-grower to allow his plants 
to grow as they will. 

The conclusion. 

It appears to be safe to conclude, from the foregoing con- 
siderations, that pruning is a legitimate practice, finding warrant 
in wild plants, in physiology, and in the experience of centuries. 
It is not of itself, as ordinarily performed, a devitalizing prac- 
tice, while its advantages are several and important. There is 
abundant opportunity for improvement in methods, every 
plant needs a particular treatment, and some species or varieties 
demand little, if any, thinning; the tree-butcher is a menace, 
and unintelligent cutting is dangerous; the prevailing shearing 
and lopping of bushes and trees may follow neither good sense 
nor good taste ; yet as a whole, pruning is indispensable to suc- 
cessful horticulture. 



CHAPTER II 
THE FRUIT -BUD 

Since one of the objects of pruning is to secure more and 
better flowers and fruit, it is important that the reader know 
what the flower-buds or fruit-buds are and on what part of 
the plant they are produced. As the fruit is the result of the 
flower, the reader will understand that the terms flower-bud and 
fruit-bud are here interchangeable. Of course, the term flower- 
bud is technically more correct, but the word fruit-bud is in 
most common use and it leads to no misunderstanding. In this 
book it is not desired to define the many distinctions between 
buds as determined by their formation and position, as is done 
in some of the European writings; this interesting subject is 
reserved for the botanist and the teacher of nature-study. 

The best way of gaining this knowledge of the fruit-bud is to 
examine the plants in company with a competent instructor; 
but the reader must be content, for the time, to look at pictures 
and to read about them. The book will explain a few type 
examples, and suggest methods of inquiry. It is hoped, how- 
ever, that as soon as the page becomes dull the reader will 
betake himself to the tree, and there obtain his knowledge first- 
hand; but if he should complain that the book and the plant 
do not always tell the same story, the author will declare that 
the observer did not see what he looked at. 

THE BUD AND THE BRANCH 

A twig cut from an apple tree in early spring is shown in 
Fig. 6. The most hasty observation shows that it has various 

(15) 



16 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



parts or members. It seems to be divided at the point / into 

two parts. It is evident that the part from f to h grew last 

year, and that the part below / grew year before last. 

ft The buds on the two parts are very unlike, and these 

differences challenge investigation. 

To understand this seemingly lifeless twig, it 
will be necessary to see it as it looked late last 
summer (and this condition is shown in Fig. 7). The 
part from / to h — which has just completed its 
growth — is seen to have only one leaf in a place. In 
every axil (or angle which the leaf makes when it 
joins the shoot) is a bud. The leaf starts first, and 
as the season advances the bud forms in its axil. 
When the leaves have fallen, at the approach of 
winter, the buds remain, as seen in Fig. 6. Every 
' / bud on the last year's growth of a winter apple twig, 
therefore, marks the position occupied by a leaf when 
the shoot was growing. 

The part below /, in Fig. 7, shows a different 
arrangement. The leaves are two or more together 
(a a a a), and there are buds without leaves (bbbb). 
A year ago this part looked like the present shoot 
from / to h — that is, the leaves were single, with a 
bud in the axil of each. It is now seen that some of 
these bud-like parts are longer than others, and that 
the longest ones are those that have leaves. They 
have increased in length. The body c has lost its 
leaves through some accident, and its growth has 
ceased. In other words, the parts at a a a a are like 
the shoot / h, except that they are shorter, and they 
are of the same age. One grows from the end or 
temiinal bud of the main branch, and the others 
„ . from the side or lateral buds. Parts or bodies that 

6. An 

apple twig, bear leaves are branches. 



% 



APPLE BUDS 



17 



The buds athhhb have 
no leaves, and they remain 
the same size that they 
were a year ago. They 
are dormant. The only 
way for a mature bud to 
grow is by making leaves 
for itself, for a leaf will 
never again stand below 
it. The twig, therefore, 
has buds of two ages — 
those at bbhb are two 
seasons old, and those on 
the tips of all the branches 
(a a a a, h), and in the axil 
of every leaf, are one sea- 
son old. In reference to 
position, we may designate 
buds as terminal and 
lateral. Buds are buds 
only so long as they re- 
main dormant. When the 
bud begins to grow and to 
put forth leaves, it gives 
rise to a branch, which, in 
its turn, bears buds. 

It will now be interest- 
ing to determine one of 
the reasons why certain 
buds gave rise to branches 
and why others remained 
dormant. The strongest 
shoot or branch of the 
year is the terminal one 




7. Same twig before leaves fell. 



18 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



(fh). The next in strength is the uppermost lateral, and the 
weakest shoot is at the base of the twig. The dormant buds 

are on the under side (for the twig 
grew in a horizontal position). All 
this suggests that those buds grew 
which had the best chance — most 
sunlight and other advantages. 
There were too many buds for the 
space, and in competition those 
that had the best opportunities or 
the best origin made the largest 
growths. This struggle for exist- 
ence began a year ago, however, 
when the buds on the shoot below 
/ were forming in the axils of the 
leaves, for the buds near the tip of 
the shoot grew larger and stronger 

8. Present year's shoot of applo. ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^j. -^g ^^gg_ rpj^g 

growth of one year, therefore, is very largely determined by 
the conditions under which the buds were fonned the previous 
year. 

These observations are still further illustrated by Figs. 8 and 

9. Fig. 8 is the current year's growth of apple. The leaves are 
placed singly, and there is a single bud in the axil of each. (The 
two awl-like bodies at the base of each leaf are stipules, or 





9. Last year's shoot of' apple. 



APPLE BUDS 



19 



appendages of the leaves.) Fig. 9 represents a 
shoot a year older. Four buds were formed m the 
axils of as many leaves in the previous year; one 
of these buds is dormant, but the other three have 
produced short leafy branches. Any tree or shrub 
will show similar differences between the two last 
annual growths. 

THE LEAF-BUD AND THE FRUIT-BUD 



Another apple branch is shown in Fig. 10. It 
seems to have no slender last year's growth, as 
Figs. 6 and 7 have at / h. It therefore needs special 
attention. It is first seen that the "ring" marking 
the termination of a year's growth is at a. There 
are dormant buds at b h. The twig above a must 
be more than one year old, however, because it 
bears short lateral branches at e e. If these 
branchlets are themselves a year old (as they 
appear to be), then the part f g must be a similar 
branch, and the twig itself (a /) must be two years 
old. The ring marking the termination of the 
growth of year before last is, therefore, at the 
place /. A twig is usually a year older than its 
oldest branches. 

The buds c c (Fig. 10) are larger than the 
dormant buds (b b). That is, they have grown; and 
if they have grown, they are really branches, and 
leaves were borne on their little axes in the season 
just past. The branchlets ddd are larger (pos- 
sibly because the accompanying leaves were larger), 
and e e and g are still larger. For some reason the 
growth of this twig was checked last year, and all 
the branches remained short. We find, in other 



10. 
Formation of 
fruit-buds. 



20 



THE FRUIT-BUD 




11. Opening of flower-bud 
of apple. 



words, that there is no necessary length (within limits) to 
which a branch shall grow, but that its length is dependent 
on local or seasonal conditions. 

There are other and more important 
differences in this shoot. The buds 
termmating the branches (e e g) are 
larger and less pointed than the others. 
If they were to be watched as growth 
begins in the spring, it would be seen 
that they give rise to both flowers and 
leaves (Fig. 11), while the other buds 
give leaves only (Fig. 12). In other 
words, there are two general kinds or types of buds — fruit- 
buds (that is, flower-buds) and leaf-buds; and checking redun- 
dant barren growth usually tends to induce fruitfulness. 

If the buds on the ends of the branchlets eeg (Fig. 10) 
produce flowers, the twig caimot increase in length; for an apple 
(in such cases as these) is borne on the end of a branch (which 
is often so short as to be called a spur), and 
therefore no terminal bud can form there. If 
growth takes place on the twig next year, 
therefore, it must arise from one of the lower 
or leaf-buds. The buds terminating the branch- 
lets ddd will stand the best chance of con- 
tinuing the growth of the twig, for 
they are the largest and strongest. 
These failing, the opportunity will fall 
to one or both of c c; and these faiHng, 
the long-waiting dormant buds may 
find their chance to grow. The reader 
should see these dormant buds for 
himself. In other words, there are 
more buds on nearly every twig than 
are needed, but there is, thereby, a 




12. Opening leaf-buds of a 
crab-apple. 



APPLE SPURS 



21 



provision against emergencies. It is not every case, however, 
in which the lower buds are the weaker. 



THE FRUIT-SPUR AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE APPLE 

We have now found (Figs. 10, 11, 12) that there are two kinds 
of buds — the leaf -buds, and the fruit-buds (or flower-buds). 
Some of these fruit-buds on the apple tree terminate short 

branches (e e g, Fig. 
10), but now and then 
one is borne on the 
end of the axial shoot 
of the season and 
sometimes they are 
produced laterally. 




13. The fruit-spur and leaf-spur. 

Fig. 13 is an apple twig as it looks in late summer and in winter. 
Several dormant buds are seen on the lower part. At a and h 
are short branches. The branch b has made a small and pointed 
bud, which is evidently to bear only leaves next year, while 
the stronger branch (a) has made a thick and rounded bud, 
which is to bear flowers. . This fruit-bud is shown natural size 
at a a. The short lateral branches are called spurs, in distinc- 
tion from the longer axial growths. We have already said that 
checking redundant growth induces fruitfulness, but on the 



22 



THE FRUIT BUD 




The lateral bud (at a) form- 
ing on the fruit-spur. 



other hand, starving or 
greatly weakening the 
growth usually gives 
only a weak bud, often 
a leaf-bud. 

When fruits or flow- 
ers are bome on the 
end of a spur, the direc- 
tion of the subsequent 
growth is necessarily 
changed. Fig. 14 is a 
bearing spur of apple. 
While the apple is growing from the terminal bud, a lateral 
bud (a) is forming to continue the spur the next year. The 
same circumstance is illustrated in Fig. 15. This side bud (a, 
Fig. 14) is a leaf-bud, and it will be the means of continuing 
the growth of the spur. There is a prevailing alternation of 
fruit-bearing buds and non-fruit-bearing buds in the spur of 
an apple tree, and this is probably true of most fruit-trees, 
although ,this result is by no means invariable, and it is not 
asserted that all alter- 
nate bearing of trees 
is traceable to the 
habit of the fruit-spur. 
A twig of Siberian 
crab-apple, taken in 
spring, is shown in Fig. 16. Year 
before last, each of the spurs de- 
veloped a fruit-bud at its summit, 
and last year each of these spurs 
bore flowers. The proof of this is 
seen in the scars left by the flower- , - t^ •, ■ .„,^ 

•^ 15. Fruit-spur heanng a mature 

stems at a a. None of these flowers apple, remains of the flowers which 

, , 1 • , • i- -j^ .1 failed to set, and the bud that is 

developed mtO ripe irultS, other- to continue the growth of the spur. 




APPLE BUDS AND SPURS 



23 



wise some of the scars would have been much larger than they 
are. (Sometunes a similar scar and a dead end are caused by the 
dying back of the spur for some reason, but in such case the dis- 
tinct marks of two or 
more flower-stalks are 
not present). It was 
''^^^=-=-^-^:^^^ probably for that very 
reason — the failure of 
the fruit — that the 
spurs were able to throw out leafy shoots 
nearly or quite an inch long, to continue the 
growth. Yet, even then, no fruit-bud de- 
veloped on the ends of these spurs, for the 
small pointed ends clearly indicate leaf-buds. 
It is seen, therefore, that there may be an 
alternation in the fruit-spur, even when the 
spur does not bear fruit. This result is prob- 
ably greatly modified by the general vigor of 
the plant, its age, length of season, soil, 
chmate conditions, and other circumstances. 

It is not be be inferred from the forego- 
ing description that the apple bears only on 
spurs of considerable age. The bearing habit 
differs with the variety and the conditions 
under which the plant is grown; but the ob- 
servations here recorded will aid the reader 
to form an idea of the fruit-spur and the 
fruit-bud. Lateral fruit-buds are frequently 
formed on apple and pear, particularly on some varie- 
ties and on young trees. Paddock and Whipple ("Fruit- 
Growing in Arid Regions") call attention to the fact that the 
spurs of apple and pear need not be two or more years old 
before bearing fruit in the irrigated orchards. "In fact, many 
varieties produce much of their fruit on one-year-old spurs and 




16. Spurs of a 
crab-apple. 



24 THE FRUIT-BUD 

on the tip ends of twigs of the last season's growth. Many 
varieties also produce flower-buds in the axils of leaves on the 
growth of the current season, the same as the peach. These 
facts seem not to have been noticed by horticultural writers, 
and no doubt this manner of fruit-production is uncommon in 
the East. But under semi-arid conditions, where the condi- 
tions under which the trees grow are most artificial, such 
fruit-formation is of common occurrence." The reader inter- 
ested further in this subject should consult Bulletin No. 106 
of the Colorado Experiment Station. 

THE HISTORIES OF THREE TWIGS 

Still further to elucidate the formation of fruit-buds on the apple, and 
to recapitulate some of the foregoing observations, let us trace the history 
of given branches in detail. 

One of these twigs (Fig. 17) was taken from a strong young tree that 
bore its first good crop of apples the previous year. This simple twig is 
plainly of two years' growth, for the "ring" between the old and new wood 
is seen at B. If the main stem from the base to B grew in 1914 (and the 
picture were made in January, 1916), then the part from B to the tip 
grew in 1915. The buds on these two parts look very unlike. Let us 
see what these differences mean. 

We must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from B to 10 looked 
last summer while it was growing. The shoot bore leaves, one below each 
bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed just above each leaf. These 
buds did not put out leaves. They grew to their present size and then 
stopped (see /A, Fig. 7). 

What are these buds of the tip shoot capable of doing next year (1916)? 
We can answer this question by going back one year and seeing what the 
buds on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did last year (which we 
may assume was 1915), as we did in Figs. 6 and 7. On that part (below B) 
the buds seem to have increased in size. Therefore, they must have grown 
last year. There were no leaves borne below these buds in 1915, but a 
cluster of leaves came out of each bud in the spring. As these leaves ex- 
panded and grew, the little bud grew on; that is, each bud grew into a 
tiny branch, and when autumn came each of these branches had a bud on 
its end, to continue the growth in the year to come. What we took to be 
simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are therefore little branches (compare Fig. 10). 




17. A two-year-old shoot from a young 
apple tree. (Half size.) 

(25) 



18. A three-year- 
old shoot and fruit- 
spurs. (Half size.) 



26 THE FRUIT-BUD 

But the significant fact in this twig has not yet been noted — the 
branches are of different sizes, and three of them (7, 8, and 9) have so far 
outstripped the others that they seem to be of a different kind. It should 
be noticed, also, that the very lowermost bud (at 1) never grew at all, but 
remained dormant the entire year 1915. It will be seen, then, that the 
dormant bud and the smallest branches are on the lower part of this shoot, 
and the three strong branches are at the very tip of the last year's growth. 

If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the autumn of 1914, we 
will see that it consisted of a single shoot, terminating at B. It had a large 
terminal bud (Uke those at 7, 8, 9, and 10), and this bud pushed on into a 
branch in 1915, and three other buds near the tip did the same thing. 

Some of these branches grew to be larger than others because of more 
sunlight or more room, or other advantage that we may not understand. 
In 1916 — if this shoot had been spared — each of these four largest twigs 
(7, 8, 9, and 10) would have arrived at the same state as did the parent 
twig in 1915: each would have pushed on from its end, and one or two 
or three other strong branches would probably have started from the 
strong side buds near the tips, the very lowest buds would, no doubt, 
have remained inactive or dormant for lack of opportunity, and the 
intermediate buds would have made short branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 
All this indicates that the tree usually grows onward from its tips, and 
these tip shoots eventually become strong branches, unless some of them 
die in the competition. What, now, becomes of the Uttle branches lower 
down? 

From an old apple tree the twig shown in Fig. IS was taken. We 
see at once that it is very unlike the other. It seems to be two years old, 
one year's growth extending from the base up to 7, and the last year's 
growth extending from 7 to 8; but we shall see upon looking closer that 
this is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, and 7 are very different 
from those in Fig. 17. They seem to be broken off. The fact is that the 
broken ends show where apples were borne in (let us say) 1915. The 
branchlets that bore them, therefore, must have grown in 1914, and the 
main branch, from 1 to 7, then grew in 1913. It is plain, from the looks of 
the buds, that the shoot from 7 to 8 grew, in that case, in the year 1915. 

Starting from the base, then, we have the main twig growing in 1913; 
the small side branches growing in 1914; these Uttle branches bearing 
api)lps in 1915, and the terminal shoot also growing in 1915. Why was 
there no terminal shoot growing in 1914? Simply because its tip developed 
a fruit-bud (at 7), and therefore could not send out a branch; for we have 
found, in Figs. 14 and 15, that the side bud continues the branch. 
If the branchlets, 3, 4, 5, and 7 are two years old, the dormant buds — 



HISTORIES OF TWIGS 



27 



1, 2 — must be the same age. That is, for two long years these little buds 
have waited (we may say) for some bug to eat off the buds and leaves 
above, or some accident to break the shoot beyond, so that they might 
have a chance to grow; but they have waited in vain. 

We have now found, therefore, that the Ut-tle side shoots on apple twigs 
may become fruit-branches or fruit-spurs, while the branches above them 
are making a display of stem and leaves. 

But win these fruit-spurs bear fruit again in 1916? No. The bearing 
of an apple consumes energy, and these spurs did not have enough remain- 
ing vitaUty to make fruit-buds for the next year; but they must perpetuate 
themselves, so they have sent out small side buds, which will bear a 




19. A fruit-spur from 
a low limb of an old 
neglected tree, which 
has borne six apples. 
(Half size.) 



cluster of leaves and grow into another little spur in 1916, and in that year 
these new spurs wiU make fruit-buds for bearing in 1917. The side bud is 
seen on spur 5, also on spur 4, while spur 7 has made provision, so to 
speak, in the bud at 6. It is therefore plain why the tree bears every 
other year (see page 22, Figs. 14, 15); but we are not to conclude, from 
these examples, that all spurs behave similarly. 

There was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked 
his apples. The dried fruits, shriveled and brown, hang on the twigs in 
midwinter, and even the birds do not seem to care for them. One of these 
old and stunted twigs is drawn in Fig. 19. Let us see how many apples 
this twig has borne. We can teU by the square-cut scars. An apple was 
once borne at 1, another at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, 
and another at 7 — and at 7 there will be a scar when the apple falls. Six 
apples this shoot has borne. We may speculate how many of them ripened, 
or how many were taken by the worms, or urchins. 

An odd thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side 



28 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



buds started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. 
But one of the Uttle branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its 
end, or it straved to death; and the place is still marked by the little stick 
standing at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventually bore apples 
at 4, 5, 6, and 7. 

We have noticed that these truit-spurs bear only every other year; 
then, if this branch has borne six apples, it must be twelve years old. The 
truth is that it is about twenty years old, for 
some years it faUed to bear; but the age cannot 
be traced in the picture, although it could be 
'' ^ made out from the branch itself. 



THE FRUIT-SPUR AS ILLUSTRATED 
BY THE PEAR 

An old fruit-spur of a pear tree is 
shown in Fig. 20. One year it grew from 
the base to a, and there formed a fruit- 
bud. Let us suppose that this year was 
1906. In 1907, a pear matured from this 
bud, as may be seen by the large scar at 
a. In this year, also, a lateral bud de- 
veloped. In 1908, this bud gave rise to a 
shoot. The "rings" whence it started are 
plainly seen at a a. It is noticeable, also, 
that the spur ceased to grow in the di- 
rection a. In this year, 1908, the shoot 
grew to the rings 6 h, and there developed 
a fruit-bud. In 1909 this fruit-bud opened 
and produced flowers, one of which bore fruit, as shown by the 
large scar (6). The short growth from 5 6 to 6 is that which 
took place in the elongation from the bud in the spring of 1909. 
While this fruit was developing, a leaf-spur pushed out from 
just below the fruit (6), and grew to the next series of rings 
{cc). A weaker bud also developed, which in 1910 pushed to- 
ward c. The six years' growths can be traced on this side shoot, 




20. Old spur of pear. 



PEAR BUDS AND SPURS 29 

and it once made a flower-bud, and a fruit set at c; but the 
small size of the scar shows that the fruit never attained 
maturity. It probably fell in very early summer. It is apparent 
that there is an alternation in the fruit-bearing of the pear, as 
in that of the apple in the case of old spurs (but sometimes the 
fruit is borne on year-old spurs) ; from this we may infer that 
there is something like an alternation of effort, or division of 
labor, in the successive growths of many plants. 




21. An old pear spur, 



The further history of this interesting pear spur (Fig. 20) 
may be summarized as follows: 1910, the barren shoot grew to 
ee, and made a fruit-bud; 1911, pear borne and carried to 
maturity at e, two side buds developing, and also two weaker 
spurs at d and d d — giving four chances of continuing the 
growth of the main spur; 1912, the spurs d and dd remained 
small and slender, but one of the upper branches grew on to g 
and there made a fruit-bud, while its twin bud (on the left) did 
not elongate; in 1913, fruit borne at g, but it did not mature 
(as shown by the small size of the scar) , and the spur continued 
to h, and there made another fruit-bud; the twin bud now 
pushed on to / and made a fruit-bud, and the spurs d and d d 
are alive, but evidently doomed soon to perish; 1914, fruits 
were borne at / and h (the bearing year having been changed), 
but neither of them matured, the side spurs pushed on to // 



30 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



and h h, and an attempt was made at fruit-bearing at d; 1915, 
all shoots elongated and all end in leaf-buds, showing that the 
change in the bearing year had interfered with the normal 




22. Twig of a Bartlett pear. 



development, for this should have been the year of fruit. Our 
spur, therefore, is ten years old; it has borne good fruits three 
times, and has made five unsuccessful attempts at fruit-bear- 
ing; some of the branches are too weak for further usefulness; 
and dormant buds still remain on the old wood. 




The contest in an old pear spur is still further illustrated in 
Fig. 21. On five of the strongest and upturned branchlets there 
are fruit-buds. Some of the branchlets terminate in the small 
and pointed leaf-buds, and some ai'e dead. If the reader has 



PEAR BUDS AND SPURS 



31 



become expert in reading the histories of twigs, he may find in 
this picture the records of ten efforts at the bearing of pears. 

Another pear twig is drawn in Fig. 22. If it was in 1914 that 
a pear was borne at a, in that year two side buds were developed 
(as they have formed in Figs. 14 and 15). In 1915, these two 
buds gave rise to 
branches or spurs, 
each of which de- 
veloped a fruit-bud 
at its en^, b c. In 
April, 1916, the 
twig would look as 
in the picture 
(Fig. 22). Three 
weeks later all the 
buds had burst (Fig. 
23). Buds b, c, d, 
and e, produced 
flowers, and / made 

only a feeble effort at leaves. That is, all but one of the buds 
are fruit-buds. In July, however, the branch looked like 
Fig. 24. Although several flowers had been produced by each 
of the four fruit-buds, only one flower in the bud b and another 
in c persisted and set fruit. 

Another twig on this same pear tree was drawn (Fig. 25) 
on the 17th of April, which we assume was 1916. There are 
three thick rounded buds which are evidently fruit-buds. They 
teiTTiinate spurs which spring from the top of the growth of 1914. 
That is, the spurs grew and developed fruit-buds in the season 
of 1915. On the 4th of May, the twig looked as in Fig. 26. 
The three buds had produced flowers, only one of which still 
persists, and even that soon fell. No fruits were produced. 
The buds were too weak to set fruit, although they produced 
blossoms. 




24. The final result. 




26. Three fruit-spurs of pear. 




26. The sequel. 




27. Leaf-spurs and a 
fruit-spur of pear. 




28. The sequel. 



(32) 



BUDS OF STONE-FRUITS 



33 



Still another pear twig is seen in Fig. 27. It is evident that 
only the lowest bud is a fruit-bud. The others are too small to 
be fruit-buds. In May the twig was drawn again (Fig. 28). 

THE FRUIT -SPUR AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE PLUM AND CHERRY 



A spur from a plum tree is shown in Fig. 29. If we begin with 

the tip of the shoot, we determine that last year's growth began 

at c, the previous year's at b, and the 

preceding year's at a. The lower side 

spur has grown to a a, then to b b, then 





29 Fruit-spur of plum. 
C 



30. Spur of Lombard plum. 



34 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



to the end. It will be seen that the buds and side spurs are borne 
usually near the ends of the growths, but the many scars show 
that buds were once present on the lower or older parts but that 
they have perished in the course of events. The spur differs 



31. 

Spur of 

Satsuma 

plum. 




32. Buds and spurs of cherrj'. 



greatly from those of the pear, in the fact that the buds are in 
twos or threes rather than single. It is difficult to distinguish 
which are leaf-buds and which fruit-buds. The character of 
the buds is to be determined from their positions rather than 
from their shapes. The first point to notice in determining which 



PLUMS AND CHERRIES 



35 




Cherry spurs. 



are leaf-buds and which fruit-buds is the direction of growth of 
the entire spur. The pear spur (Fig. 20) is crooked and forked 
because the fruit-buds are essentially terminal ; if, therefore, the 

plum spur is straight or con- 
tinuous in growth, it is because 
the terminal buds are leaf -buds. 
The side buds may therefore 
be inferred to be fruit-buds. 
The reader should examine a 
plum tree in either flower or 
fruit for further Hght on this 
point; and from all his observations he will be able to satisfy 
himself that there are at least two general types of spurs on 
fruit trees — with terminal fruit-buds and terminal leaf- buds. 

The fruit-bearing of the common plum is further illustrated 
in Fig. 30, which shows the growths of the last two years. The 
last season's growth is from a to e, and on this part there are 
no fruit-buds. The second year's growth, below a, bears many 
fruit-spurs, each of which has several fruit-buds, thus explain- 
ing how it is that plums are borne in dense clusters. It is notice- 
able that the strongest spurs are 
nearest the top of the two years' 
growth. 

A spur of a Japanese plum. Fig. 
31, shows clustered fruit-buds. A 
single smaller leaf-bud is in the 
center of each cluster. Japanese 
plums also often have twin or 
multiple fruit-buds in the axils of 
the leaves — on the last year's 
growth. 

A twig of Morello cherry is 
shown in Fig. 32. It is of two years' 
growth. The division between the 34. The same spurs in May. 




36 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



two years is seen between 2 and 3. Above this division, the 
buds are single and in the axils of leaves; below it, they are 
clustered on spurs. The rounded buds on these spurs, 1, 2, are 
fruit-buds. Fig. 33 shows two cherry spurs, one a 
leaf-spur and the other a fruit-spur. The four large 
buds on the fruit-spur are flower-buds; the central one 
is a leaf-bud. Fig. 34 shows how the same spurs look 
when they have burst into growth. 

THE PEACH AND THE APKICOT 



The next picture (Fig. 35) shows a twig cut from 
a peach tree in spring (or winter). It is two seasons 
old, as shown by the ring at a, and by the different 
buds on the two parts. On the older parts are dormant 
buds; there are also singular angled bodies 
at eee. We understand what the dormant 
buds mean, but the other bodies demand 
explanation. They are not growing 
branches, because they have no buds. The 
truncate or squared ends are scars. These 
cannot be leaf-scars, because no buds are 
left above them (and we have found that 
buds grow in the axils of leaves). They 
must, then, be fruit-scars (or flower-scars). 

If we could have seen this twig (below 
a) in the spring of last year, a piece of it 
would have looked like Fig. 36. Three 
buds are borne together, the two lateral 
ones (which are evidently fruit-buds) being 
large and thick. If it were the habit of 
the peach to bear three leaf-buds together, 
the method of branching of the peach 36. Triple 

111 11- h\ids of 

tree would tend to be by threes; but this peach. 



PEACH BUDS 



37 



is not the fact. We know that these members a a are not spurs 

(or branches), because the leaf -scar is visible below each one. 

That is, they are normal buds, formed the previous year in the 

axils of leaves. If we 

could go back to this 

previous year, we might 

find the condition shown 

in Fig. 37, in which, in 

this particular case, a 

triplet of leaves stands 

by this group of buds; 

or single leaves of the 

peach may bear in their 

axil only one bud, or a 

leaf-bud and one or two 

fruit-buds. From this it 

is seen that the method 

of fruit-bearing of the 

peach may be unUke that 37. The bud-bearing of the peach. 

of the apple, pear, plum, and cherry. 

It must now be determined why the fruit-scars are single on 

the twig in Fig. 35, while the fruit-buds are in pairs (with a 

leaf-bud between them) in the first 
place (Figs. 36, 37). Fig. 38 shows 
a half -grown peach which has arisen 
from one of the buds. A flower was 
produced from each bud, but in the 
process of development one of them 
(and also the leaf-bud) perished. 
The twig in Fig. 35 has no buds on 
the bodies that bore the peaches; 
therefore, these bodies are not leaf- 
bearing branches (or spurs), and 
38. Partly grown peach. they do not bear again. We have 





38 



THE FRUIT-BUD 




seen (Figs. 36, 37) that these fruit-buds are formed 
on the axial growth of the current year, and bear 
the next year, and not on spurs. Very short 
fruit-bearing growths often stand on two- or three- 
year-old wood of the peach, but these are not true 
spurs — although they look Uke spurs — since they 
usually bear but once, or at least do not continue 
to grow and to branch extensively. It is plain, 
therefore, that the peach-grower should always aim 
so to manage his trees as to have a liberal supply 
of new growi;hs. 

An apricot shoot is seen m Fig. 39. It is of 

two seasons' growth. On the last year's growth, 

above a, the buds are bome singly, in twos, or in 

threes. Usually, a bearing 

young twig has buds in 





39. Fruit-buds of 
Moorpark apricot. 



40. 
Short branching 
spur of apricot. 



41. Two axillary fruit-buds of 
apricot; there is a small leaf -bud 
between them. 



threes, as the peach has, the middle one being a leaf-bud, 
but one or two of the triplet often perishes before full matu- 
rity. Below the point a there are fruit-spurs, much as in the 
plum. These spurs in Fig. 39 are long and simple, and bear 
several buds; but one often finds branching spurs, like Fig. 40, 
reminding him of the pear, although the apricot spur never 



KINDS OF FRUIT-BUDS 



39 



attains such great age as does the pear spur. The apricot, there- 
fore, makes fruit-buds both on the current year's growth and 
on spurs. 

We have found that the triplet buds of the peach are some- 
times subtended by three leaves. In apricot three buds are 
borne in the axil of a single leaf (Fig. 41). 

We have seen in Figs. 11, 23, and 34 that the blossom-bud 
of the apple and pear and cherry contains leaves as well as 





42. Competition among the apple flowers. 



43. The single and 
leafless flowers of 
apricot. 



flowers. These leaves persist through the season and probably 
aid in nourishing the fruit. Notice them in Figs. 15 and 24. 
They are also shown in Fig. 42, and this picture (as, also. Fig. 
15) shows how it is that apples are usually borne singly although 
the flowers are in clusters of six or more. 

In the peach, however, the fruit-buds do not contain leaves 
(Fig. 38), and, moreover, the flowers are borne singly. Fig. 43 
shows that the same is true of the apricot. We may say, 
therefore, that the blossom-buds of the peach and apricot are 
simple, and that those of the apple, pear, plum, and cherry are 
mixed. 



40 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



A 



Gooseberry 
eboot. 



GOOSEBERRIES, CURRANTS AND JUNEBERRIES 

In the gooseberry shoot in Fig. 44, it is plain 
that the part from a to 6 grew last season, and 
the part below a season before last. The upper 
part has simple buds, while the lower part has 
what appear to be elongated buds, but which 
are really fruit-spurs. Each of these spurs, then, 
bore a cluster of leaves 
last year, as if it had 
been an apple spur. 
If the reader will ex- 
am ine currant and 
gooseberry bushes at 
any time of the year, 
he will readily con- 
clude that they usu- 
ally bear fruits on 
spurs, but that these 
spurs commonly bear 
only two or three 
times. 

The two -year -old 
twig of a black currant 
is drawn in Fig. 45. It 
was taken in spring, 
and yet the remains 
of the old fruit-stems 
persist on each of the 
spurs. The point of attachment of these stems 
shows the lengths of the spurs of the year 
before, and the crook in the spur at that point 
shows that the fruit-bud was terminal or 
essentially so (as the spur contains but a single 




Fniit-bearing of the 
black currant. 



KINDS OF FRUIT-BUDS 



41 



bud), also that the subsequent growth of the spur arose from 
a side bud. In fact, two of the spurs, a, b, developed 
two side buds. The fruit-bearing of the gooseberry and black 
currant, therefore, is at least in part by means of spurs. The 
black currant bears mostly on last year's wood, but the red and 
white currants bear also on two-year-old wood. 

The juneberry twig (Fig. 46) shows that this plant also 
bears on spurs; and on each of the four spurs shown in the illus- 




46. Bearing shoot of dwarf juneberry. 



47. Expanding shoot of 
Norway maple. 



tration the old fruit-stem still remains. The best clusters the 
following year may be expected to come from the strong ter- 
minal buds. 

CO-TERMINAL FRUIT-BEARING 



The expanding shoot of a Norway maple is illustrated in 
Fig. 47. It came from a winter bud terminating a twig. The 
enlarging scales of this bud are at a a, b b. This shoot bears 



42 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



not only flowers but leaves, and 
the shoot is growing. That is, the 
axis has elongated considerably 
since the opening of the bud. 

A quince flower is drawn in 
Fig. 48. This also is borne on a 
leafy shoot of the season. That 
is, a shoot grew from the terminal 
winter bud, and after this shoot 
had grown several inches a flower 
was produced. Such methods of 
flower-bearing may be called co- 
terminal, because they terminate 
the axial growi:h of the season. 

We can now understand the 
winter twigs of the quince. Fig. 
49 is such a twig. There is a fruit-scar at d. We know that 
the shoot grew the same year in which the fruit was borne; and 
this is further proved by the presence of lateral buds on the 
shoot between c and d. Another fruit was borne at 6. While 
this latter fruit was growing, side shoots started off in two direc- 
tions, one extending to / and the other to g. The following 




Flowering shoot of quince 




49. Twig of quince. 



KINDS OF FRUIT-BUDS 



43 



winter the tip of the branch g died, and in the spring two shoots 
sprang from it, one growing to d and bearing a fruit, and the 
other to e and not bearing. The branch h f made a number of 
lateral shoots, for its tip also had died before the growing season 
began. The twig 49, then, is four years old. 




50. Branch of small-fruited hickory. 

In Hke way, the reader may trace the history of any of the 
hickories (Fig. 50), butternut, and walnuts, in all of which the 
fruit-bearing is also co-terminal ^ 

GRAPES AND BRAMBLES 



A bit of a grape-cane, with a bud, is shown in Fig. 51. In 
May, this bud had given rise to a shoot like that in Fig. 52. 
As the shoot grows, flower-clusters arise. Two such clusters 
are now well developed, and a third is appearing near the tip; 
and the shoot will continue to grow from the tip, a. This shoot, 
in fact, is to become a cane, growing several feet in length 




54. Fruit- 
bearing of 
raspberry. 



53. The fruit-bearing of the grape 



GRAPES AND BRAMBLES 45 

before the close of the season ; but the flowers will not continue 
to form, for only two to four clusters are borne, as a rule, on 
each cane, and these are all near the base of the cane. In 
autumn, the grapes hang from the lower, or older, joints 
(Fig. 53), the cane continuing in the direction a; and from some 
or all of the lateral buds on this cane other flower-bearing 
shoots may arise the following year. Consequently, we may 
say that the fruit of the grape is borne on growing shoots of 
the season, which shoots arise from wood (matured canes) of 
the last year's growth. If, therefore, two to four clusters of 
grapes may be expected from each bud on the recently matured 
canes' the pruner can determine how many buds he shall leave — 
that is, how long he shall cut his canes — to produce a given crop. 
This subject we shall pursue in detail when we come specially 
to consider the case of the grape in Chapters VIII, IX, and X. 

In autumn and winter, a recent black raspberry cane looks 
like A, Fig. 54. In the following summer, the bud above A 
sends forth a shoot, the remains of which may persist the next 
winter and look like B. This shoot bore several leaves, and a 
cluster of berries at its top. The red raspberry, blackberry, 
and dewberry behave in a similar way. These plants, there- 
fore, are like the grape in the fact that they bear fruit on leafy 
shoots of the season which arise from wood of the previous year's 
growth ; but they differ from the grape in the fact that the fruit 
is borne on the end of the shoot, and the shoot, therefore, can- 
not itself develop into a long cane. The canes of the fruit- 
bearing brambles arise each year from the crown or root — and 
bear the following year — whereas the canes of the grape arise 
from other canes. 

Very many plants bear their flowers or fruits at the ends of 
leafy shoots of the season, and their fruit-bearing might, there- 
fore, be said to be co-terminal (page 42) ; but this term should 
be restricted to those plants in which the leafy shoot is short 
and reaches its growth soon after the opening of the winter bud. 



46 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



SPRING-FLOWERING AND SUMMER-FLOWERING 

Many roses, some spireas, and many other omtunental 
plants, bear flowers at the end of summer shoots (see Fig. 55) ; 
and in such plants the aim should be, if many flowers are 
desired, to secure many strong seasonal growths. 




Flower-bearing of a wikl rose. 



The method of pruning shrubs, and even some kinds of 
trees, growTi for their bloom, turns on this habit of flower- 
bearing. The Hlac may be taken as an example of a shrub that 
beare directly from winter buds — these flower-buds are formed 
the previous season, and a longitudinal section of them made at 
any time in winter and placed under a small magnifying-glass 



HOW FRirr liUDS LOOK 47 

will disclose the embryo flower-cluster ready to appear with the 
burst of spring. If the pruner heads back lilac bushes in winter 
or before they start in spring, therefore, he cuts off the bloom; 
but if he heads them back (in case he desires to keep them within 
bounds) or thins out the growth after the bloom has passed, 
however, he encourages new shoots on which flower-buds may 
be formed for the next year, or at all events he does not prune 
away the flowers. 

The case is quite otherwise, however, with the shrubby 
hibiscus or so-called althea. In this bush, the flowers appear 
in summer on shoots that grow the same season (and not directly 
fronT dormant winter buds) ; it may therefore be pnmed in 
very early spring, while dormant, without detriment to the 
bloom of that season or even to the betterment of the bloom, 
since new growths (perhaps flower-bearing) will be encouraged. 
Most of the kinds of clematis have a similar habit. 

At another place (Chapter VI) is given an extended list of 
shrubs and trees that may be pruned before flowering and after 
flowering. 

HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE FRUIT-BUDS 

We have now found that there are three elements or factors 
that aid one in determining the places at which the plant is to 
bear flowers or fruits — the habit or manner of growth of the 
particular plant or species, the character of the spurs, and the 
looks of the buds. Thus, we are to look for the fruit-buds mostly 
on the last year's growth of the peach, generally on spurs of 
apple, pear, and plum, and the like. We find that, as a rule, 
a spur which matures fruit one year produces only leaf-buds 
that year, and may make blossom-buds the following year. We 
know that these fruit-buds are often formed a season ahead, 
in which case they can be distinguished in the winter, as in most of 
the orchard fruits ; but we also know that in many roses, and some 



48 



THE FRUIT-BUD 



other plants, there is no way of telling far in advance — except 
by experience — how many flower-buds there will be. 






56. Leaf-bud and flowor- 
bud of pear. 



57. Leaf-bud 
of apricot. 



I 1 



58. Flower- 
bud of apricot 
in section. 




59. The different 
kinds of buds. 



The winter fruit-bud is usually larger, thicker, and rounder 
than the winter leaf-bud, and it is conunonly more pubescent or 
fuzzy. There are weak fruit-buds, however, which are very 
like leaf-buds; and these weak buds usually do not carry fruit 
to maturity. 

The only positive means of determinmg fruit-buds is by 
an examination of the interior. The 
winter bud is really an embryo branch. 
It contains in muiiature or in rudunent 
as many leaves or flowers as the re- 
sulting branch is normally to bear. With 
a razor or very shaip knife, cut a bud 
in two lengthwise. Sharp eyes cxm. 
determine between leaf-buds and fruit- 
buds m apples, pears, and most other 
60. Diagrammatic section fruits; but it is best to have a small 
;lriS4:TtheStiS l^"s. A common pocket magnifying- 
or vesetation point; A', bud gi-^gg jg usually suflftcient. If the sec- 

locations. " *' 

tion of a pear or apple bud looks like 

Fig. 5Ga, it isaleaf-bud; if like Fig. 566, it is a flower-bud. 

The globular bodies in the latter are the miniature unopened 

flowers; a similar one is further expanded in Fig. 11. The 

imbricated plates in Fig. 56 aie bud-scales and leaves. 




DETAILS OF THE BUDS 



49 



A leaf-bud of apricot in section is in Fig. 57. A flower-bud 
(taken after it had begun to swell) is shown in Fig. 58. 
In Fig. 59 (after Lucas) a leaf-bud is shown at a, branch-bud 
at b, fruit-})ud at c. Fig. 60 (also after Lucas) is a schematic 
representation of a terminal leaf-bud. 

The pictures will aid the inquirer 
in determining the fruit-buds in 
pears and apples; and discussions in 
Chapter IV may also help him to 
understand them. Fig. 61 shows a 
terminal leaf-bud at A, and three 




61. Pear spurs, E with three 
fruit-buds. 




62. Tips of pear shoots; 2 has fruit-buda. 



terminal fruit-buds on E. Below these three is a leaf-bud. 
These two twigs in Fig. 61 are short spurs. In Fig. 62 are 
shown the tips of three strong top shoots from a dwarf pear 
tree. Shoot 1 is terminated by a leaf-bud, and shoot 2 bears 
four fruit-buds. Last season, the end of shoot 3 was injured. 
The dead tip is still seen at e. Two side buds developed, 
and there was a great deposition of tissue below each one; but 
both of these buds are still leaf-buds. Nonc^ of the common 



50 



77/ F nUlT lUD 




Apple spur^: 
fruit -Inul. 



fruits oxhibits such iutorostitig vnrijitions in fruit-lnui oliar- 
actoi-s as the pear, particularly as botwoon old aud young 

tiYOs; it is therefoix^ specially inter- 
esting for study. 

'IVo apple spill's aiv reported in 
Kig. t^o. One, ^^ ends in a leaf-bud. 
and the other, o, in a fruit-bud. Both 
set fruit the year before, but the fruits 
did not pei*sist. Fig. G4 sIkhn-s tips of 
strong apple shoots. At d is a leaf- 
bud and ai (■ a fruit-bud. Observe that 
the stoutest twig l>ears the fruit-bud. ^ 
In sinne eases, the two sexes — the stamens and pistils — are 
in ditTerent tlowei-s on the same plant, as in hickories, walnuts, 
oaks: in a few trees (,as willoA\-s imd poplars) tliey are on ditfeivnt 
plants. When the stamens and pistils are separate on the s:mie 
plant, the species is sjiid to be nunuvcious: when they aiv on 
differiMit plants, the species is ditvcious. In both cases, it is 
necessiiry that the inquirer 
should tind two kinds of 
bU>sson\-buds, if he desin^s 
to locate the parts. Fig. ti5 
is a twig from a filbert taken 
in winter. The catkins, or 
tlower-clusters. are two at 
each joint. With the first 
warmth of spring, the cat- 
kins elongjite and dangle in 
the wind. But they bear 
only stamina te or male tlow- 
ers. The pistillate or fruit- 
bearing tlowers aiv hidden 
in short r^nindeil buds, imd , ^^■*- ■^"ii>" ^^' >'i'K'/^ 

shoots; <• IS a mnt- 

the pistils do not pwtrude bud. 




l>o. AN iiitor oatkins 
of tillH>rt. 



WIXTKIi KlLI.Kh HI l)S 



61 



until .spring. Fig. 00 shows a twig of hazol (filberts and hazels 
are very closely allif;dj tak(;n in (jarly spring, and the stylas of 
the pistillate flow(;rH are protriiding from the two lower buds. 
In the walnuts and hickories, the pistillate flowers 
are co-tf;rminal, but the starninat(i flowers arise from 
lateral wintf^r flower-buds on the last year's growth. 
'Jlie xvwiV'x will ask how to tell when fruit-buds 
are winter-killed. It is usually the embryo flowers 
that are destroyed by cold, although, in severe 
wintfTS, the entin; bud of the mixed fruit-bud type 
may be kill(;d, so that th(! bud does not swell on 
th(! approach of spring. The normal color of the 
int(!rior of fruit.-buds is green or greenish. When the 
interior i.; black or very dark brown, it is generally 
safe to infer that the bud Is dead. 
Figs. 07 and 08 illustrate differ- 
ences between live and dead 
buds, the dead buds being on 
the left in (;ach case. It should 
be added, however, that much of 
the reporting on condition of pistiiiate 
fmit-buds is little more than "*'C'd.°' 
guessing. The surest way to de- 
termine the condition of the buds is to 
examine them carefully under a lens or dis- 
secting microscope. Having determined just 
how a dead bud looks, in the particular plant under con- 
sideration, the inquirer may then extend his observations to a 
more general examination in the field. 



f)7. Apricot budh, 
d<;!wl and livo. Loii- 
Kitudiiial H';(;tioii. 



68. Peach buds, 
dead and live. Cross- 
seotion. 



rmo OEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOWER-BUD OR FRUIT-BUD 



At what epoch the differentiation takes place in the bud, de- 
termining whether it shall produce only leaves the next year or 



62 THE FRUIT-BUD 

whether it shall produce flowers, probably depends on very 
many circumstances as well as on the particular kind of plant. 
In the case of all common orchard fruits, the destiny of most of 
the normal buds is probably determined so early in the season 
of their formation that little influence can be exerted on them 
after mid-spring or early summer. At first, these buds are 
merely growing points; and long before they have begun to 
take on their familiar bud-shape their course is probably fixed. 

The studies of Drinkard at the Virginia Experiment Station 
(Report, 1909-1910, with many micro-photographs) showed 
that the fruit-buds of the Oldenburg and some other apples 
began to form the last week in June. "There was evidence of a 
prolonged period of fruit-bud formation imtil late into the sum- 
mer, though a large majority of the fruit-buds formed in early 
July." Of Kieffer pear, the fruit-buds did not begin to differ- 
entiate until after the middle of July; of Luster peach, the first 
week in August. In plums the epoch was found to be variable. 
On Japanese varieties of plums, fruit-buds began to form the 
second week in July; on varieties of the Americana group, 
the first week in July; on Whitaker (one of the native class), 
the first week in September. Cherry Louis Philippe began 
to form fruit-buds the first week in July. His general sum- 
mary is as follows: 

"Buds which produce the crop of bloom for the current year 
are formed the preceding summer; initial fruit-bud formation 
has its beginning during June or July, depending on seasonal 
conditions and the kind of fruit. 

"The proper development of the fruit-bud would therefore 
be influenced by factors which are brought to bear upon the 
tree prior to and during the period at which fruit-bud forma- 
tion takes place. In the practice of such orchard operations as 
are designed to mfluence or control fruit-bud formation, it 
appears that such operations should be more effective in the 
spring and early summer than at other stages of development." 



EARLY STATE OF ERUIT-IiUDS 



53 



Ono must not overlook the fact that fruit-buds may con- 
tinue to differentiate throughout the active season, if conditions 
are right, as Drinkard's studies indicate. The early and excel- 
lent studies of ({off at Wisconsin clearly indicate this fact. 

"In the year 1899," as Goff's summary conclusions are reported 
in the Twentieth Report, Wisconsin Experiment Station, 1903, 
"the first evidences of flower formation in cherry was from buds 
cut on July 11th. In plums the first evidences of flower-bud 
formation was July 8th. In apple from buds cut June 30th and 
in pears from l>uds cut July 21st. This seems to show that the 
begirming of the development of flower-buds follows the season 
of most rapid growth, and continues until intermpted by low 
temperature in the autumn, at which time the buds are well 
developed and ready to be unfolded with the warmth of spring." 

It was found by Goff that "embryo flowers sometimes forai 
in the apple and pear in September as well as in July. The 
summer and autumn periods of flower-formation may be dis- 
tinct. The late-formed flowers in the apple and pear may pro- 
duce, alone, a good fruit-crop the following season. 

"The 'side-buds' that developed the past summer on fruit- 
spurs of the apple that flowered last spring, formed embryo 
flowers in several varieties before the middle of October. 

"The embryo flowers began to form in a tree of the Bokara 
peach in our Station orchard about September 14 the past 
season. 

"In the Clyde strawberry, the first indications of embryo 
flowers appeared September 20. In the rooted runner plants the 
flowers appeared at about the same time as in the parent plants." 

What exact influences determine the destiny of a bud, aside 
from its position, is mostly unknown, although a knowledge of 
this kind is crucial to the best horticulture. The influences are 
probably to a large extent those of soil conditions and fertility, 
as shown by Pickett, Gourley, and others; and with these we 
are not immediately concerned in a discussion of pruning. Goff 



.)l 77/ A' run T inn 

ivports that ttowor-buds do not oftcMi, if over, ro\'ort to loaf-lnuls. 
although they are apparoutly not striu'turally ditYoivnt from 
loaf-lnuis. "Partial defoliation of the buds h\ the pear on July 5 
hastened rather than retarded the formation of embryo tlowers. 
In the plum and eherry partial ilefoliation of the fruit-spurs 
just as the enibryo tiowei"s were eonnneneiui!; to form did not 
prevent their formiuii;, but slightly redueed their size." 

It is not generally understood that dormant buds may 
develop tlowei"s and fruit, when eonditions are right, although 
CiotY reeords this to be the ease. Whether the dormant buds, in 
these eases, were originally tlower-buds or whetlier they sub- 
sequently developed into tlower-buds from leaf-buds, is a ques- 
tion for mueh investigation, although Cuit^'s statements indi- 
cate that the change in character may take place after the 
first yeai*: "In the apple, a bud may form tiowere the first, 
second or third season or even after that. If imduly shaded, it 
ma>' never form tlowei"s. In favorable seasons for tlower-for- 
mation, mimy of the buds formed that season, and nearly all of 
those formed the preceding two seasons, that have not alreatiy 
flowered, will become tlower-buds. An excessive apple crop 
results, which is necessarily followed by a light one, because 
the supply of reserve buds is exhausted." 

SUMMARY SYNOPSIS OF THK POSITIONS OF FKUIT-BUDS ON THE 
COMMON FRUIT-TREES 

^^'e ha^•e now found that one must know the flower-bearing 
habit of any plant before one can cultivate it intelligently for 
blossom or fruit. The measure of intellectuiU satisfaction hi 
cultivation lies in undei-staiuling the plant as well as in se- 
curing the product. 

The positions of the fruit-buds in any species vary with the 
age and vigor of the plant, with the variety, food-supply, 
probably with irrigation, and other conditions; but the habitual 



CLASSIFICAriON OF FRUIT-BUDS 55 

modes of fnjit-hcarin^ may h(; nonvcniontly presented in synop- 
tical form, if tlu! n-ader b(;arH in mind that every species may 
now and then exhibit exceptions and departures: 

I. Flowers commonly produced immediately from distinguish- 

able winter buds. 

(o) Buds lateral, and usually no spurs; Peach, almond 
(mostly), Japanese plum (in part), apricot (in part), 
filbert, hazel. 

(6) Buds for the most part on spurs, in some species ter- 
minal: Apple, pear, cherry, plum (mostly), apricot 
(mostly), almond (in part), currant (in part), goose- 
berry. 

II. Flowers (or fruits) on shoots of the season. 

(c) Co-terminal — borne in early spring on the end of a very 
short shoot which arises from a winter bud: Quince, 
medlar, hickory, walnut. 

id) Terminal, or approximately so, on lateral summer 
shoots: Rasj)b(!rry, blackberry, dewberry, orange. 

(e) Lateral on strong shoots (or on canes): Grape, chest- 
nut, persimmon, mulberry, olive. 

(/) Terminal on terminal shoots: Loquat. 



CHAPTER III 

THE WOUNDS AND HOW THEY HEAL 

Ik tho pninor is to umlorstaml tho lirMlinji; of tl\o wounds 
that ho makes in sovorinii; limbs, ho must oonsiilor for a nunuont 
tho gonoral makiMip of tho plant oylindor. Tho youup; shoot is 
tightly onvolopod with bark. In n\any ]>lants tho inoroaso in 
dimnotcr of tho stoni oomos about b> [\\c formation of rings of 
now tissuo (or now wootl) unilor tho bark, and 
we know that in all plants tho growth hi thiok- 
ness takes plaee within tho I'vlindor, and not on 
the very outside. It is evident, then, that the 
oovoring of bark must give way to allow of tho 
expansion of tho woody oylimior within it. The 
tissues must, therefore, bo untior oonstant pivs- 
suro or tension. It has boon estimated that tho 
pn^ssure within a growhig tnmk is often as 
nnioh as fifty poimds to the square hieh. 
A pioee of an elm bvanoh ten yoaivs old is 
dra\Mi in Fig. 09. It is an iueh in diaineter, 
yet the bark at the top is smooth and intaet. 
At one time, the shoot was not moi\^ than 
^ ><ineh hi diameter at tiiis point. The ivador 
may tiginv out how muoh this bark has ox- 
]ianded by the eonibinod aotion of mteroalary 
growth and stivtehing. 

The lower part of the limb shows that tho 
outer layoi*s of bark (which are long sineo dead, 
09. CrackiiiK and jict Only as protective tissue) have i-eaehod 

of tho lisvrk on an .\ ^■ -, c\\ ■ i- -i i i 

elm hnuu'h. ^ho limit ot their ox]iandmg oapaoity and liavo 




77/ A' ICXPANDlNfl STEM 



57 



ho,\r\\r\ to Hplii. Th(! rr'udor will now be intcrestod in the bark 
on Uic; fKxly of an (Ad chu tree (Fig. 70j; and he should Vje 
able to HUggcHt on(! reason why stems remain terete or cylin- 
drical, and why t}ie old bark becomes marked with furrows, 
scales, and plates. 

If, for any reason, the bark shoukJ 
b(!COTn(! very dc;ns(! and strong and the 
trunk sJiould not exjKUid, tlie tree is 
said to be "bark-bound." Such a con- 
dition is said to occur in orchard-trees 
that hav(! been negi(!cted, but th(! cause 
and eTfect may not be properly under- 
stood. When good tillage is given to 
such tre(!S, tliey may not be able tcj 
overcome the rigidity of the old bark, 
and, therefore, do not respond to the 
tr(!atm(!nt. Home; times the thinner- 
barked limbs may outgrow in rapidity 
the trunk or the old brancluss below 
th(!m. The remedy is to release the 
t(!nsion. Perhaps this may be accomplished by softening the 
bark (by washes of soap, lye, or other materials); but the 
usual practice is to slit th(! bark-bound part (in spring), 
thrusting the point of a knife through the bark to the wood 
and then drawing the blade down the entire length of the bark- 
bound area, '"i'lu; slit is scarccily discernible at first, but it opens 
with the growth of the tree, filling up with new tissue beneath. 
liCt the read(!r consider the ridg(!s which he now and then finds 
on tre(!s, and determine whether thciy have any significance. In 
other words, are the trunks of trees ever perfectly cylindrical? 
If not, what may cause the irregularities? Do trunks often 
grow mor(! on one side than the oth(!r? Slit a rapidly growing 
unimportant limb, in spring, with a knife-blade, and watch the 
result throughout the season. Consult the woodpile, and observe 




Picco of bark from an 
old elm trunk. 



05 



nit: H ('( \ />.s 



the variations in thickness of tl\o annual vinj::s. and especially of 
the stune m\2; at ditYereut plnees in the eireinnfereuee. 



AN OKSKKVAriON OF KM>rS 



We have seen tliat son\e of the side branelies mi the little 
chern- tnv (Fig-, o") died, and that all the othei-s will probably 
perish. Fij;. 71 v^^lunvs a dead limb on an oak tnw The lunb 




71. A dead branch ami the 
elevation of healing tissue at 
its base. 




72. A knot-hole. 



became weak because the shade was too dense, and probably 
also bec.Huse branches above it took more thai\ an tH\ual share 
of food. Finally, borers and fungi attacked it, and it ditxl. It 
rotted slowly away, year by year its twigs fell, and finally a 
heavy fall of snow broke it off as we now see it. As soon j\s it 
died, it became a menace to the trtv, for the rot in its tissues 
might extend into the trunk. The tree made an effort to cover 
it up.' The tissue piled higher ;ind higher about its base, as if 
it'aching for the end of the wound. The limb was eaten away by 
deca>', and became smaller and smaller m dimneter, leavmg a 
cup-like ring about its base. Finally it broke otT. and a knot- 



KNffTH AS I J K.\Or JIOLEH 



y.) 



hole, w'.ui \i'Si. Sijcli a knotz-hoK; in w^m in V'\^. 72. Kriot-holc-s 
o/i lh<; \><A'uiH of tr<'/^;, ti^jn, anj tho cavitjf;?-; loft by 'Ifia^i ami 
(Uutayirtfi^ lirribK, 

A h<-Jit\(x.k Utii, KfJif, \<:itii\.Uw'\n(',, in drawn in Fig. 73. A knot 
<;xU;n'Jrt f/> th*; cAtiiUtr. 'ihi.-; knot iij the rt'.r{iix]TiH of a limb, and 
w rwjarly a« old a« the trunk, YxttiSixmi it «tart« from the very 
cA'.xiU'.r; that iw, thr; limb Htari/'A when the tree was a more :-:ap- 
ii/ig. 'J*h(; fjrofjabiljt.y i.n timt it i>i jij.st one year younger tl'ian 
the trunk iteelf, for branches mostly 
Ktart on the second year's wood, unless 
s^^me stnjss of circumstances starts 
out the older and dormant buds. The 
limb finally di^xl and broke off, and 





7.'<. Kiml ill :x }i<:llAo<:k \<)il.. 



74. A buried branch or kiiot. 



tlie stub was buried. The tissue has now grown out to the end 
of thu; stub, an(J nothing remains but to closfi over the hole. If 
t,he limb hji/J rott<;d away, a Sf^uirrel or a woodpecker might 
liav(j takfm up his quarU;rs in the cavity. The wood-<;hopper, 
liowever, found only a knot; and a board sawwJ from the log 
wf>ijld iiave had a knot whenever tlie saw cut ijucrom the old 
stub. If the knot were loow;, it would fall out, and the Vxjard 
would hav(5 a knot-hole. Fig. 74 shows an old branch complet^:;Iy 
l>uri(;d in the trunk, all the tissue around it being finn and 
sound. This knot is kjng enough to have run through many 
incli boards if the log had been taken to the saw-mill. 



60 



THE WOUNDS 



Knot-holes iii boards, therefore, represent cross-sections of 
branches; and each one is the record of an event in the history 
of the tree. We are not hero discussing burls. 

A lunb was sawed from a tree. Several yeai-s aftei*ward a 
drawing was made of the stub (Fig. 75). The limb had not yet 




75. Improper cuttiug of a limb. 




76. Proper cutting of a limb, and a 
good ring of covering. 



healed-in. The reason is apparent: the stub had been left of 
such length that the tissue had not yet been able to pile up over 
it, and, havmg no life in it itself, the branch could not make 
healing tissue of its own. The stub is now a monmnent to the 
man who pnmed the tree. Fig. 76 shows how another limb was 
cut, and although the wound is not nearly so old as the other, it 
is rapidly closing in. There are most important practical les- 
sons, then, to be learned from this study of knot-holes — two 
of which are that nature is a heroic pruner, and that limbs 
should be sawed ofif close to the parent branch if the wounds 
are to heal well. 



WHAT WOUND IS 61 

THE NATURE OF THE WOUND 

The increase in diameter of the stem or trunk is made by 
the growth of cells from the cambium and adjacent merismatic 
cells, which, in such kinds of plants as we have been considering, 
is a tissue lying upon the outside of the woody cylinder and 
beneath the bark. From its inside, speaking broadly, the cam- 
bium produces wood, and from its outside, it produces the soft 
or inner bark. As the outer bark is ruptured by the expansion 
of the stem, parts of the inner bark give rise to the corky 
external and protective layers. A mere abrasion or surface 
woun5, which does not expose the wood, is healed by the for- 
mation of new cork cells from the iimer bark; but a wound 
which exposes the wood is healed by growth from the cambium. 

The cambium region, then, is the active propagating tissue 
of the plant cylinder. The wood-cells soon become Hfeless, and 
have no power to grow or to multiply. In some plants when 
young, the pith-cells have the power to develop a callus, but 
these cases need not concern us here. It is apparent, therefore, 
that when a limb an inch or more in diameter is cut off, the 
exposed hard wood can never heal, as a wound heals in flesh. 
A mass of tissue, known as a callus, grows out over the wound 
and covers it. Fig. 76 is a picture of this callus-ring. The ring 
will eventually cover the wound; and if a longitudinal section 
of the healed wound were then made, we should find the condi- 
tion shown in Fig. 77 — the end of the old stub remaining as 
sharp-cut as it was when left by the saw, and capped over with 
wood, much as a fruit-jar is capped with a metal cover. 

This Fig. 77 is one of the most important pictures in the 
book, and it is drawn accurately from a normal and average 
example. It is important because it shows that the end of the 
old stub has no organic or vital connection with the callus which 
covers it, but it is merely hermetically sealed in, as a nail or a 
plug of wood might be. So far as the vital functions of the tree 



62 



THE WOUNDS 



are concerned, this stub is a foreign and useless body; and no 
dressing can be expected to hasten the heahng-over process 
except as it may keep the parts free from uifection. 

The reader will readily understand why the solitary end of 
a projecting stub has no healing power within itself, in the usual 
fruit- and forest-trees. The plastic or tissue-building substances 




Cross-section of callus on an apple tree. 



are compounded or manufactured in the leaves and are trans- 
ferred through certain tissues (the phloem) of the inner bark 
to repair and extend all active parts of the plant body; it is 
only when the wounds are located along the lines of transfer 
or at some actively building part that healing tissue develops. 
In paths of main transfer, circular wounds are likely to heal 
more rapidly on the sides parallel with the branch rather 
than crosswise (top and bottom). 

The callus-ring grows rapidly for a year or two. But hard 
bark forms on this callus, as it does on other growing wood, and 
growth is checked. This bark even forms on the under side or 
lip of the callus. Over the end of the stub in Fig. 77 there is a 
thin layer of bark. We have already found (page 57) that 
slitting the bark on a trunk may relieve the pressure and allow 
of extra rapid growth at that point. If the callus ceases to grow 
and the operator makes a cut with a knife-point around the 
inner edge of the callus-roll, it is said that the growth of new 



HEALING OF WOUNDS 



63 



callus may sometimes be stimulated; but this is doubtful prac- 
tice. It is probable that any application or treatment that 
prevents the callus from becoming very hard and bark-bound 
will facilitate the continuous spread of the tissue. 

In surface wounds that expose the wood, the callus also forms 
and covers the denuded area. If the injury does not extend 
below the sapwood, or if the wood has not dried out and died, 
the callus may make a vital connection with the exposed surface 
of the wound. If the side wound goes deep, however, the healing 
tissue forms no real union with the denuded surface, any more 
than it does with the end 
of a Stub as shown in 
Fig. 77. This is well 
illustrated in Fig. 78, 
which shows a truncheon 
taken out of an old trunk. 
The side of the tree had 
been hacked with an axe, 
as shown on the right. 
This depression was filled 
in with tissue, as the 
tree grew, and finally 
there was no mark on 
the exterior; but when 
the trunk happened to 
be split years afterwards 
by the chopper, the two 
areas fell apart hard and 
clean. 

The healing of the wound serves as protection. It checks 
evaporation from exposed parts, and prevents decay by protect- 
ing the wood from the weather and by excluding bacteria and 
fungi., A rotten heart, or rotten wood of any kind, is a diseased 
condition; and this disease is the work of living organisms. 




78. 



The filling of a deep wound on the side 
of a tree. 



64 



THE WOUNDS 



The exposed wood dies. It cracks and checks. The surface 
collects dust, which, with the dead cells, makes a thin soil in 
which germs find congenial conditions for growth. Even after 
the wound is covered by the callus, the mycelium of fungi 
may continue to extend itself in the wood, often reaching the 
heart and causing the trunk to become hollow. Normally, the 
heart of a tree should never decay; but sooner or later most 




Nail buried in the wood. 




Tap-hole buried in the wood. 



trees are exposed to injuries, either in top or root, through which 
the organisms of destruction may enter. 

The pictures will help us to understand. Fig. 79 shows a 
cross-section of a maple trunk in which a nail is imbedded. The 
wood closed tight about it and no harm resulted. Now, this 
was the nail upon which a sugar-maker hung his bucket. Just 
below it was the tap-hole; and this hole, now completely cov- 
ered by the wood, is seen in Fig. 80. But mischief has come to 
pass. The tap-hole was an open wound, and fungi entered; 
and the discolored tissue shows the progress of the decay. 



THE ROTTEN HEART 



65 



Pictures of ash logs are shown in Fig. 81. The one on the 
right had a perfect-looking trunk, although a scar was discern- 
ible at one point. 
A section of the 
trunk shows that a 
large limb was once 
broken off and its 
stump completely 
buried under the 
new tissue; but the 
log is rotten-hearted c' 
(a), and the decay 
of the old stump (6) 
shows where the 
mischief began. The 
stump on the other 
log is not yet closed 
in, and its end is decayed; and a colored streak (c) running down 
the heart of the old limb shows the trouble that is coming. 

A hickory stub has been covered (Fig. 82, left) and, from 
outside appearances, the tree is now safe; but a section (Fig. 




Diseased areas in an ash log. 





82. A diseased trunk, but all healed externally. 



66 



THE WOUNDS 



82, right) shows that the injury is serious, and probably the 
decay began before the heahng was completed. Even in the 
apple stub in Fig. 76, wound-rot is serious. The rougher and 
more broken the surface of the wound, the greater is the likeli- 
hood that fungi will g:iin entrance. On smooth and solid wounds, 

the greatest danger is probably 
on the lower edge, where the up- 
rolling ring forms a cup that holds 
water; therefore it is well to shape 
the wound to a point. 

It would be untrue to con- 
clude that decay follows from all 
serious and exposed wounds. Fig. 
83 shows a section of a maple log 
in which the buried stump is 
hard and sound; but such cases 
are probably the exception. 

We are now able to under- 
stand that while dressings or 
applications to the wound cannot 
directly hasten the healing process 
(page 63), they may aid it by pre- 
venting the decay of the parts, and they may be the means, 
thereby, of saving the tree. That is, dressings are preventive, 
not curative; and in this they are akhi to the antiseptic dress- 
ings of the surgeon, which prevent contamination of the woimd 
and thereby allow nature to heal it. 

A large literature has now developed on wood-rots, a subject, 
however, quite foreign to the present discussion. 




A sound knot, 



HOW TO CUT THE BRANCHES 



The reader will see how futile it is to attempt to construct 
any theory of the management of wounds from a few isolated 



CUTTING TO A BUD 



67 




Poor and good heading-in of 
dwarf pear. 



experiments; for the interpreted results of such experiments 
often contradict fundamental principles, and therefore cannot 
be true, however clear and unequivocal they may appear to be. 

First of all, the pruner 
wants to know how and 
when he shall cut the 
limbs so that they will 
heal as quickly as possible. 
Let us think about the 
question, and see. 

A twig of a peach tree 
was cuf back in autumn. 
By spring it had died back 
an inch, as shown in Fig. 
84. This stump or stub 
will not heal over of itself. 
If it is ever inclosed, it will be buried by the growth of a branch 
which shall spring from a side bud. There is such a bud on 
the twig, and if a branch arises from it, the stump may be over- 
topped in the course of a few years ; but the probability is that 

this bud will not grow, because 

the drying out of the twig 

has injured it. The responsi- 

])ility must fall, therefore, on 

a lower bud. 

Two dwarf pear shoots are 

reported in Fig. 85. The one 

on the left was cut at some 

distance above a bud, and 

the dead and dangerous stub 

persists. The twig on the 

right was cut just above 

a bud, and the wound is 

already securely covered. 



84. 
The dy- 
ing-back 
of a win- 
ter-cut 
shoot. 




86. The proper way to cut 
above a bud is shown at a. 
At h, the cut is too long and 
sharp ; at c, too far removed ; 
at d, too close. 



l« 



Tin: wovsDS 



Fig. SO (from Corbet t") shows proper :ind improper wnys of 
cutting above a bud. 

Two important lessons are to be tirawn from these simple 
examples — the nature of the healing pnu-ess, and the relation 
of the length of the stub to the welfare of the uppermost buds. 
In i*espect to the healmg process, it may be said that stubs 
\\hich project far beyond a branch or far fron\ a trunk rarely 

heal over. The end of the branch 
bemg removed, the stub camiot 
heal itself, but the healing nuist 
depend on the activities of other 
paj"ts or branches (page 62) ; this 
statement is unportant, and we 
s]\all see its applications as we 
proceed. 

In respect to the welfare of 
the buds near an open wound, 
the pictures seem to tell contra- 
dictory stories. In Fig. 84, the 
bud is in danger; but ui Fig. 85, 
one wound liealed over because 
the bud was near it. These 
apparent contradictions are ex- 
plained by two circumstances. 
The twig in Fig. 84 was on a 
The roots had not yet taken hold 
of the soil, and could not supply the moisture which was lost 
from the wound. The cell contents were therefore injured. 
The twigs in Fig. 85 were on welK^stablished trees. Again, the 
cut in Fig. 84 was made in autumn, and those in Fig. 85 in late 
winter. Conditions, therefore, greatly modify the problem. 
The healing of the stub takes place most quickly, other 
things being equal, when a strong bud or branch stimds close 
to the womiil, provided, always, that this bud is not injured 




S7. In niemoo' of the pruner. 

newly set fall-planted tree. 



THK ijangkhouh stub 



09 




hH. The bulge or enlarK':- 
nient at bane of a branch. 



by the drjing out of the Btub. How long this stub may be 
and not allow injury U) conifi to the bud dajXindn, as we have 
mum, on circuniHtances. If the cut h ma^le in Hpring, the bud 
may usually stand close to the edge of 
the wound; if it is nxa/le in wintfir on 
rn^wly s(it or sfjft-growing trwiS, in 
regions of severe winters, the stub should 
uKually \)fi alxjut ^ inch long. In the 
pruning of train(^i tranH, European gar- 
deners often take off the shoots in win- 
ter when time is to spare, leaving the 
stubs 2 or 3 inches longer than daaircA; 
in spring an assistant, who may have had 
insufficient experience to enable him to 
block out the pruning, goes over the trees 
and cuts back the stubs to a fresh bud. 
The readier has already seen in Fig. 75 the monument that 
a man plaf;ed Uj his own memory. It is a stump so long that it 
cannot be healed over; for, 38 we have seen, a leafless and 
branchless stump has little or no reparative power in itself. 
The only chanc<; for this stub t<j fje healed-in 
is from the activities of the trunk; but the 
end of it is too far removed from the base 
of sui>plies to receive much benefit there- 
from. Having no vital part in the life of 
the tree, it is side-tracked and must starve. 
Fig. 87 is another ca.se. Above the stub at 
the righit a cluster of toadst<xjl fungi has 
found a happy foothold. 

W(; may now consider where these limbs 
should have been cut. There is an enlarge- 
ni(!nt — fjr brac(i — at the base of a limb, and ^^y ^^ wf.-ii-<x>vercd 
this bulge is usually largest on long and wound. Thr; pmning 

1 • 11-1 r.„ • 11- 11 , was dow^ BO that no 

horizontal hmbs. 1 his bulge m well shown stub wa« left. 




70 



THE WOUNDS 



in Fig. 88. It is a common notion that the cut should be made 
just beyond the bulge, and at right angles to the direction of 
the limb. Usually the better way, however, is to cut closer, 
for all parts of the wound are then in more intimate relations 
with the trunk, which supplies the 
materials to be used in covering 
the exposed surface (Fig. 89). 
The area of the wound is larger, to 
be sure, but to very large wounds 




90. A wound in the process 
of "healing," by being covered 




91. 



Good resvilts in the healing of 
side wounds. 



it is expected that the operator will apply a dressing. Fig. 90 
shows the progress of the healing on such a wound; and Fig. 
91 is a good example, the largest wound showing a four years* 
growth of callus, the one at the side being entirely covered in 
the meantime. Wounds on strong limbs, especially those which 
are vertical or ascending, heal best. Very long stubs die back, 
instead of healing. Wounds lying close to the parent branch 
heal best, and those cut well beyond the bulge or shoulder 
are intermediate between these and the very long stubs. 

Whether a large wound exactly parallel with the trunk will 
heal sooner than the smaller wound made at the bulge of the 
branch, depends on the extent of the bulge and other conditions. 



HOW TO MAKE THE CUT 



71 



Very large flat wounds are comparable to a partial girdling. The 
point is that a projecting stub is not to be left, and that the 
wound should be in intimate contact with the trunk on which 
the severed branch stood. 

In his introduction to the American edition of Des Cars' 
pruning book, Professor Sargent says that "it is necessary to 
prune in such a manner that no portion of an amputated or 
dead branch shall be left on the trunk. The cut should always 
be made close to and perfectly even with the outline of the trunk, 
without regard to the size of the wound thus made. This is the 
essential rule in all pruning, and on its observance the success 
of the operation depends." Des Cars himself speaks as follows: 
"It follows that a wound 
caused by the amputa- 
tion of a branch must, in 
order to heal properly, be 




92. Careless pruning. 




93. How to prevent the 
splitting of the wound. 



made perfectly even with the trunk, that every part of its 
outer edge may be brought into direct communication with the 
leaves through the net-work of cells destined to convey the 
descending sap." 

If the danger to wood wounds arises mostly from the absorp- 
tion of moisture and the entrance of germs from the atmosphere, 
then it must follow that a wound which is smooth and solid is 
safer than one which is haggled or splintered. We conceive, 



72 



THE WO VXDS 



also, that the progress of the callus is greatly obstructed by 
notches and splinters. 

Most of my readers need no explanation of Fig. 92. The dis- 
aster would have been prevented if the operator had cut the 
limb as suggested in Fig. 93. A cut is first made as at a, saw- 
ing the hmb half in two, and then the cut is made at b. The 

stub is then sawed off close, as 
shown in Fig. 89. Every pains 
should be taken to prevent the 
splitting of the wound or the tear- 
ing away of the bark, for ragged 
wounds seldom heal without becom- 
ing seriously diseased. Fig. 94 (from 
Chandler & Knapp, Cornell Read- 
ing-Course) shows the first cut at 
E and the complete or final cut at 
A. The limb will break at E, after 
which the cut may be continued to A. 
Although this is not the proper 
place for the detailed discussion of 
pruning tools (see Chapter V), it may be said that for the 
severing of large hmbs no tool leaves a better wound than 
a sharp saw. If the wound is not torn or spUt by the weight of 
the limb, it will not be necessary to smooth the cut with a knife 
— as some persons recommend. Chisels leave good wounds, 
although they are likely to split the wound near its upper side 
when they are operated from the ground with a mallet. It is 
surprising how careless many persons are in the making of wounds 
on trees. Axes and hatchets are often brought into requisi- 
tion, and the operator goes at his work as he would attack a 
stick of timber. Leonard Coates' remark will apply to more 
states than one: "Many pruners in California have mistaken 
their vocation: they are carpenters." 




94. Preventing the splitting of 
the limb. 



TIME TO PRUNE 73 



WHEN TO CUT THE BRANCHES 



At what season of the year wounds shall be made is a sub- 
ject of many opinions. This is evidence that there is no one 
season in which wounds always heal better than in all other, 
seasons. It is indication that the time of the year at which the 
wound is made is less important than some other considerations 
or factors. 

We have seen that the healing of serious wounds is a process 
that depends primarily on the cambium. Healing cannot 
proceed, therefore, when the cambium is inactive, as it is in late 
fall and winter. We have also seen (Fig. 84) that exposed tissue 
on young shoots or twigs may die back in a long winter. There 
is a tendency for the tissue and bark to die about the edges of 
a wound made in late autumn or in winter, and this sometimes 
progresses so far that the edge of the bark becomes loose. This 
is clearly a disadvantage to the healing process; and the wood- 
checking of the stub from its longer exposure is also to be con- 
sidered. In practice, however, these disadvantages are usually 
negligible. 

On the other hand, pruning in the growing season of spring 
exposes the plant to bleeding. It is not germane to the present 
discussion to consider the effect of this bleeding on the plant, 
although it may be said that injury rarely follows. It is stated, 
however, that the sap sours upon exposure to the air and injures 
the bark and tissue about the edges of the wound, but con- 
firmation of this opinion seems to be lacking. Fruit-trees 
rarely bleed to any extent, and on trees that do bleed, it is 
doubtful whether this injury follows. The Japanese walnut 
bleeds profusely. On the 10th of one April, a limb 2 inches in 
diameter was cut from one of these trees. The sap ran freely, 
and kept the bark wet two weeks for a distance of nearly 2 feet 
below the cut. After two seasons, the wound looked as shown 
in Fig. 90. It healed well on all sides, and there was never 



74 THE WOUNDS 

the least injury from the bleeding. Moist wounds, however, 
do not allow of the efficient application of permanent antiseptic 
dressings. 

Tests were early made at Cornell on apple trees to determine 
the best season for the making of wounds and the best dressings 
for covering them (reported in part in the original "Pruning- 
Book"). The wounds that healed well were made in February, 
March, May, June, July, October, November, December — 
eight months. The wounds that did not heal well were made 
in January, March, Maj% June, July, August, September, 
October, December — nine months. We are forced to conclude 
that some factor other than season was controlling in the heal- 
ing of these wounds. These important factors are two — the 
position of the wound in the tree, and the length of the stub; 
and of these the former is the more important. 

Wounds were made when the wood was solidy frozen. Of 
these, some healed well, showing that pruning when the wood is 
frozen does not of itself delay the healing process. Others of 
these wounds healed poorly, but the reason was to be sought in 
the position and nature of the wound, not in the fact that the 
wood was frozen at time of cutting. 

We may draw the following statement from experience in 
respect to season of pruning, so far as the healing of wounds is 
concerned: The theoretically best time is probably in spring, 
before growth begins (late Februaiy, March, and early April in 
New York), but more depends on the position of the wound in 
the tree and the length of stub than on the time of year. Practi- 
cally, the best time for main pruning of orchards and street trees 
is whenever the wood is dormant. In the case of tender trees or 
shrubs it is well to wait till spring, so that the extent of winter 
injury may be known. If much pruning is in prospect and 
other labor is pressing, the work may well be begun in November 
and December, and more care can be given to it if it is not 
hurried. 



TREATMENT OF EXPOSED PARTS 75 

DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 

A dressing for a wood-wound must possess two positive qual- 
ities — it must check the weathering of the wound, and prevent 
the entrance and growth of bacteria and fungi; and it must also 
be of such a nature as not to injure the cambium and bark. In 
other words, the ideal dressing is a protective compound and an 
antiseptic. In certain plants, natural dressings are provided, 
as gummy substances that fill the cells, or as the pitch of the 
Conifers which is a perfect wound-covering in those trees. 

The proper dressing for wounds, or whether any dressing 
whatever is advantageous, is a controverted problem. The 
various experiments are not conclusive nor even harmonious. 
It is probable that there is much variation in composition in 
substances passing under one name. It is difficult to explain the 
confusing reports on the use of "coal-tar" on any other basis 
(this material differs with the coal from which it is made, and 
the process of preparation or manufacture; the injury to fresh 
wounds undoubtedly comes from creosol and similar products 
that have not been eliminated) ; and it is very likely that "white- 
lead paint" and other materials are not uniform in the various 
tests or in the experiences of different pruners. In Chapter IV, 
in the discussion of street-tree and shade-tree pruning, another 
side of the question is considered (page 93). 

The first thing to be sought in a wound-dressing (when the 
pruner is sure that it is not injurious) is adhesiveness and dura- 
bility; and these qualities are conditioned to a considerable 
degree on the penetrating power of the material. Paint and coal- 
tar answer this requirement. It should also have intimate con- 
tact with the wood. The various waxes do not satisfy this require- 
ment, for they tend to peel off and to crack, and moisture lies 
beneath them. Lead paint and coal-tar are antiseptics, whereas 
wax, grease, tallow, and the like, are not. Bordeaux mixture is 
also a good antiseptic, and if it had the power of persisting and 



76 THE WOUNDS 

of preventing checking or weathering, it would be an ideal 
wound-dressing. On quick-healing small wounds it can probably 
be used with satisfaction; and it is a question whether it would 
not pay thoroughly to spray trees, from which many small limbs 
have been cut, with the mixture. This advice has other recom- 
mendations than its suggestion for the preserving of wounds, for 
bordeaux mixture is an excellent general fungicide ; it cleans the 
trunks and branches of lichen or "moss," and probably aids to 
some extent in driving away certain insects. 

Paint and coal-tar are the dressings most commonly recom- 
mended. Coal-tar is said often to injure the cambium and bark 
of fruit-trees. Dressings of tar, and even bandages of tarred 
paper, made to protect plants from borers, often destroy the 
bark, particularly on young trees. Asphaltum is an excellent 
dressing, but it must be dissolved in a fluid and this makes it 
troublesome; and sometimes the solvent itself is injurious. 
Asphaltum dissolved in benzine has been recommended for 
some purposes. Des Cars strongly advises coal-tar for forest- 
trees, but makes this remark respecting its use on fruit-trees: 
"The application of coal-tar should not be made except with 
considerable caution in the treatment of wounds on drupaceous 
fruits (cherries, peaches, plums, etc.), and especially on the 
plum tree. It has often been observed that the bark of fruit- 
trees of this class has suffered from the application of coal-tar. 
This is not the case, however, wuth pome-bearing trees (apples, 
pears, etc.); to these coal-tar may be applied with perfect 
safety." Card reports that in experiments in Nebraska "coal- 
tar seems to have been a positive hindrance to the healing pro- 
cess, not one wound having been reported as healing extremely 
well." In the Cornell experiments, already reported, tar did 
no damage. In those experiments, paint, grafting-wax, lin- 
seed oil, and tallow were also used, but all the differences in the 
healing of the wounds were evidently the result of other con- 
ditions than the dressings. Why there should be any difference 



WOUND DRESSINGS 77 

in the requirements of fruit-trees and forest-trees is not clear. 
Perhaps the orchardist is impatient for too rapid results in the 
healing processes, and he deals with fresh wounds. 

The experiments of Howe at the New York Experiment 
Station (Geneva) gave negative or even injurious results with 
the usual dressing materials when used on young apple and 
peach trees, on small wounds (not over 2 inches across). "The 
substances used as coverings were white lead, white zinc, 
yellow ocher, coal-tar, shellac, and avenarius carbolineum. The 
dressings of these materials were applied when the pruning 
was dt)ne at different seasons of the year and upon wounds of 
various ages. 

"In all cases undressed pruning wounds have healed more 
rapidly than those whose surfaces have been protected. Shellac 
seemed, the first season, to exert a stimulating influence upon 
the wounds, but the second season this effect disappeared. Of 
all the materials used shellac was least injurious. On the other 
hand, it adheres to the wounded surfaces least well of all. 
Avenarius carboHneum and yellow ocher caused so much injury 
that neither substance should ever be used. Coal-tar not only 
caused injury but quickly disappeared either through absorption 
or evaporation. White lead and white zinc caused some injury 
at the time of apphcation, but the wounded tissues recovered 
rather quickly and at the close of the first season the injury 
was not very marked; at the close of the second season it had 
nearly disappeared. These two paints are the best of the 
protective substances used and of the two white lead is the 
better. 

"Nothing is to be gained in the treatment of wounds in 
waiting several weeks before applying any of the various dress- 
ings used in these experiments. 

"The treatment of peach-tree wounds with any of the sub- 
stances under experiment caused so much injury that it may be 
said that the wounds of the peach should never be treated with 



78 77/K worxDS 

any of thoin, anci it may bo int'iMTod that (his is (mo of wounds 
on troos of all stont^fruits. 

"Thore is nothing to show in this oxpoviniont that it is worth 
whilo to treat woinids, larji;o or small, of troo-friiits with any of 
the svibstancos in con\n\on use. Had thoro boon a longor period 
of observation, it niijiht have developed that the wood exjiosed 
in the larger womids would have been sonun\hat saved from 
the deeay whieh often sets in on exposed wot)d of fruit-trees. 
It may prove to lie worth while, tlierefore, to cover large 
woimds; in W'hich case white lead is imdoubtedly the best 
dressing to use." 

Very little in the way of demonstration can be dra\Mi from 
either the exporunents or the experience in the dressing of 
wounds, altlunigh the practice rests on good rational principles. 
It is reasonable to suppose that a dressing may alTord useful 
protection from weathering and against the entrance of fungi, 
if one can be foimd that is not injurious to the tissues, and that 
it will be most desirable on large wtninds (of say 2 and 3 inches 
antl more across) antl on old or weak trees in which the repara- 
tive processes are likely to be slow. The hidications seem to be 
that good white-load paint, with linsood oil, is the best covering 
yet tested for fruit-trees and usual subjects, if it is renewed 
as needed; and the suggestion naturally arises that we are 
yet in need of a permanent, safe, antiseptic and easily applied 
protective dressing for orchard and home-grounds work. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE MENDING OF TREES; STREET-TREES 



US to under- 



Plants an; itxposcA to injuries of Ktorrri, weathering, and 
animals, and to the disasters that result from the struggle for 
existence; and they are maimed by careless pruners and work- 
men and by electric wires and acci- 
dents of traffic and building. They 
are subject to the attacks of boring 
and oth(;r insects and to the incur- 
sions of fungi. Many of these injuries 
can be repaired, and the preceding 
discussions will help 
stand how. A f(;w typ(;s 
of cases may be ex- 
plained, however, as a 
means of further eluci- 
dating the subject. 

Label-wires were care- 
lessly left on the trunks 
The results are seen in 
It will be noticed that 
tlie larger diameter is above the girdle. 
This is easy of explanation. We have 
found (see page 121) that the ma- 
terials taken in by the roots in solution 
are not directly available or useful in the 
making of plant-tissue. They ascend to 
the leaves, and are th(!re elaborated, in r.^ t, ■ , ^ 

. . . . 96. Ruuiod by a 

conn(!ction witii material taken from label-wire. 




95. Thi; riiischiev- 
otiH lubd-w'ire. 

(jf young trees. 
Figs. 95 and 90. 




(79) 



80 



SURGERY: STREET-TREES 



the air, into organized compounds, or become incorporated 
with such compounds. These organic compounds — of which 
starch is one of the chief — are transferred to every part of the 
plant to build up its tissues. The transfer takes place in the 



OV inches 




inches 



97. A girdled pine. The lower part had 
four annual circles of wood and the upper 
part eight circles. 



9J^. 
Bridge- 
grafting of a 
girdled trunk. 



inner layers of bark; therefore, whatever food passes do^vn the 
stem is intercepted at the girdle and is there deposited as abnor- 
mal tissue. Fig. 97 shows how a girdled pine tree lived, and 
piled up tissue above the barrier, until the roots Avcre starved 
and the tree died. 

We now see the importance of preventing the girdling of 
trees by label-wires and by careless tying to stakes; but we are 



REPAIRING GIRDLES 



81 



also informed that a girdle is not necessarily fatal to a tree. If 
the young wood remains live and moist, the crude food-materials 
may pass up from the roots, and the plant continues to live for 
some time, and, in the case of coniferous trees, often for several 
years. If the girdle is made early in the season, the tree may 
cover the part with bark the same year, and thus live on; but 
if the girdle is made late in the season, the sapwood is likely to 
dry out and die, and the tree to perish before the return of 
another season. If it is desired to kill trees quickly by girdling 
them, the girdle should extend through the sapwood. 

In -the treating of girdled trees, it is first necessary to see 
that the exposed wood does not become dry and diseased. 
Trim away the rough edges of bark, apply an antiseptic, then 
cover the entire surface with melted wax, and bind it up with 



MM 




99. Details of bridge-grafting: A, the trunk of a tree girdled by mice; B, the 
wound cleansed and the bark along the margins trimmed back to healthy, 
growing tissue; C, cion with beveled ends ready for insertion; D, longitudinal 
section of the trunk with cions in place, showing their insertion under the 
bark of the trunk (w;); E, cions in place ready for waxing. 



82 



SURGE RYi STREET TREES 



cloth bandages. Certain fruit-trees may be saved in this way, 
even if the girdles completely encircle the tree and if they are 
as much as a foot long, providing the trees are vigorous and the 
treatment is applied immediately, before the wood becomes hard 
and dry. 

If the tree is particularly choice, or if the girdle is unusually 
serious or of long standing, and especially if the wounds extend 




100. Cross-section of bridgo-grafted tree. 

into the wood, it may be advisable to supply a connection be- 
tween the separated parts of the trunk. Fig. 98 explains how 
this may be done. The edges of the girdle are trimmed, and 
cions are inserted under the bark so as to bridge the wound. 
These cions are cut to a wedge shape on either end as for ordinary 



BRIDGE-GRAFTING 



83 




101. A cushion to prevent 
galling of a staked tree. 



cleft-grafting, and they are inserted between the bark and wood. 
A cloth bandage is tied about each edge of the wound, to hold 
the bark in place over the cions (some- 
times a small tack is driven through the 
ends of cions that do not fit snugly), and 
melted wax is then poured over the 
entire work, covering the exposed v/ood 
and also the edges of the bark for 2 
inches or more back from the wound. It 
will do no harm if the cions are buried 
in the wax. Care should be taken that 
the cions do not send out shoots from 
their buds. Some persons prefer to cut 
the buds from the cions to avoid this 
difficulty, but it is probably better to 
leave the buds on, inasmuch as their 
effort to grow may hasten a union. In 
Fig. 99 (W. F. Fletcher, Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 710, United States 
Department of Agriculture) the 
details of bridge-grafting are well 
explained. Fig. 100 is a cross-sec- 
tion of such a bridge-grafted tree, as 
it looked seventeen years after the 
work was performed. This specimen 
was reported in The Rural New- 
Yorker by Leroy Whitford: the pic- 
ture is reproduced from that paper. 
Trees are often much injured 
by rubbing against stakes to which 
they are tied. Fig. 101 suggests a 
way of avoiding this. 

The splitting of the trunk by 

, , • ... „. 102. A neglected weather-split 

cold raises many inquiries. Fig. on a sweet cherry tree. 




84 



SURGERY; STREET-TREES 



102 is a tree split to the heart by a cold winter and then neg- 
lected. The bark has rolled back through the action of alternate 
wetness and dryness, the wood has become lifeless and the crack 
has gaped. Fig. 103 is a peach tree 
which was similarly injured; but in this 
case the bark was trimmed back to 
the quick as soon as spring opened and 
the injury discovered, and the area 
was treated with antiseptic. At the 
end of the same year, the wound was 
nearly healed, and the tree is probably 
the better for the accident, since the 
pressure of a hide-bound trunk has 
been released. In these cases of split- 
ting it is very important that the bark 
be trimmed back at once, before it 
begins to roll and loosen itself; for as 
often as the bark rolls the healing is 
interfered with and forced further back 
from the original wound. In the 
cherry and some other trees, there is 
a strong tendency for the bark to roll, 
and in such cases it is advisable to 
bind the wound with cloths, having 
first applied melted wax to keep the parts fresh and soft. 

The treatment of "bad spots" on trunks and branches may 
well follow the general method advised by Jehle (Cornell Cir- 
cular No. 26) for cankers: ''Whenever the cankers occur on 
limbs that can be removed without detriment to the tree, it is 
best to remove them while pruning, care being taken to cut 
several inches below any visible injury, as the livmg fungus in 
the brown-rot canker extends back beyond any external evi- 
dence of the disease, and if allowed to remain will continue to 
infect healthy wood. If the cankers occur on hmbs that it is 




103. A treated split. 



TREATING CANKERS 



85 



desirable to save, they should be cleaned out by removing all 
the diseased wood a short distance back of any visible evidence 
of the disease. The diseased wood and bark can be readily de- 
tected by their brown color. In the brown-rot cankers it is very 
important to remove all this discolored tissue, as it is in this 
tissue that the fungus hves, and if it is not removed the disease 
will spread. The amount of bark that it is necessary to remove 
depends on the extent of the diseased part. Sometimes the 
fungus has extended so far beyond the healthy callus that it is 
necessary to remove it entirely, while at other times the fungus 
may Rave extended but slightly into the upper and lower ex- 
tremities of the callus and it is necessary to remove only a small 
part. It is always well to leave as much of the callus as possible, 
to facilitate healing. All the dead bark and twigs should be 
removed. It is not necessary to remove any of the solid wood 
except to smooth the treated part. The wound should be 
pointed at the upper and lower extremities and the bark should 




104. In need of repairs. 



86 



Sl'RGKRY: STREET-TRKKS 



wmmM 



bo cut at right nnjjlos to [\\c wood. As somi as tlio wound has 
dried out it sliould bo ooatod with i^as-tar. 'This is ivsiduo in 

tlio inaiiufaoturo of iUuiuinat- 
inii lias from ooal. and oau bo 
obiainod at any gasworks, 
rho gas-tar aots as a disinfoot- 
ant and ]irosorvativo. and no 
t>iiior troatniont is ntH'ossary." 
^^ hat is to bo dono in such 
a oaso as Fig. 10-t? It would 
probably bo bost to out otY tho 
twi> hn\bs at A ami R. and 
allow tho romaining branoh to 
form tho top. In that oaso, tho 
wound at A must bo trinnnoti 
baok smooth and oloan, and 
paiiitod or othorwiso protootod. It may bo dosirablo, howevor, 
to savo tho brokon part. In that oaso, hoad it baok. raiso it 
h\to position, and bolt it fast. An iron bolt may bo rim ti\rtnigh 
the base, holding it securely in place, and a brace (a boll. 




lOo. CrvUoh tu'lil In a K^lt. 




100. Liviiii; bi;u'i- in ;i Talniau Swoot apj 



liiiAt is(; THI-: ioukh 87 

chain, or wire cabU;) may Ik; Kupplicd hi^cr up, a« Bhown in 
P'if?, 105 and ax f;xplainf;d farthf;r r/n, 

'i'hf; b(;Kt \.r<'M.\.uu-.r\\, JK to provont crotches from splitting. 
This can \><; a^icornpii.slifjd by not having the crotch, or by bra- 
cing it U;fore it showH KigriH of wf;aknf«.s. The Vxjlt (Tig. 105; 
may hx; iiw;d for thifi purpow;. A living bra^i may be grown 
acroKH the f;rotch, aw shown in Figs. 106 and 107. Two small 
limbH, prf;ff;rably not larger than 
thr; little fingf;r, arining from 
Opposite branchf«, are twisted 
tightly together, the fre-e ends 
being allowed to project as they 
may beyond the opposite branch. 
In a year or sfj, the two will begin 
to knit txjg(!ther, at which time ' 
the free tips — and shoots which 
have arisen from lateral buds — 
are headed-back or removed. As 

the branches continue Uy unite, 107. Living brace in a Newtown 

the leafy parts are curtailed, and '''^'^'^"- ^'''^• 

in a few yc^ars a perfectly solid and continuous living brace will 

be formed from limb to limb. Fig. 106 is from an actual 

example, which the writer hafl under observation for many 

years. 

The connection shown in Fig. 107 was made in a different 
way. The braf;c is a single branch arising at the right. When as 
large as one's finger, it was tlmist tlirough a slit made through 
the large branch at the left, allowing it to project 2 or 8 feet 
beyond the wound. It soon grew fast, and the free part was 
then remov(;d; t}i(; result is a pf;rf(;ct union and a strong living 
brace. 

Natural grafts or unions in roots and branches frequently 
occur in nature, and may incidf-ntally serve a similar 
purpose. 




88 SURGERY; STREET-TREES 

TREE SURGERY; PRUNING STREET-TREES 

By George E. Stone 
(Pages 88-106) 

The practice of repairing and saving valuable lawn- and 
street-trees that have been injured, and particularly those that 
contain cavities of decay, has lately gone largely into the hands 
of specialists and the subject has come to be known as "tree 
surgery;" this subject may now have a special treatment. The 
rational discussion of it naturally involves a consideration of 
the pruning of shade and ornamental trees to prevent injury or 
disaster. 

The term "tree surgery" is legitimate to use in describing 
modem methods of treating trees, as the methods are similar 
to those used in human and animal surgery; that is, the treat- 
ment of trees is based on aseptic and antiseptic methods. In 
the same way that modern surgery is successful in correcting 
deformities, performing operations, and the like, so a young and 
vigorous, although often imperfect, tree may be improved and 
rendered more valuable by the use of sLnilar methods. While 
old and decrepit trees are often treated to extend their period 
of usefulness, it should be borne in mind that it is more desir- 
able to care for the younger and more promising trees, and 
it is only too apparent that if more attention had been given to 
the care of trees at the proper time in their youth, they would 
never be in the condition in which we often find them. 

Unhke the surgeon, who has no choice of subjects, the tree 
expert may choose his individuals at the start and eliminate the 
imperfect specimens, although in the process of development 
trees need constant attention. It is desirable that antiseptic 
methods of treatment shall be adopted following pruning and 
mechanical injuries. 

Pruning shade- and street-trees. 

Besides the necessary pruning at the time of transplanting 
shade-trees, the removal of dangerous dead wood and branches 



FORM OF STREET TREES 89 

every two or three years is essential, and in the case of street- 
trees the lower branches should be taken off. When limbs are 
so close as to interfere, it is best to remove them, and this should 
be performed when the trees are young in order that a better 
crown may be ultimately obtained. Some persons make a 
practice of thinning and shaping trees when young, thus obviat- 
ing the necessity for too much thinning when the trees reach 
maturity. The amount of dead wood annually found in trees 
is frequently large, and it costs about as much to dispose of 
it as it does to prune. 

In" villages, a distance of 10 or 12 feet or more may be left 
between the ground surface and the lowest limbs, but in cities 
the nature and amount of traffic necessitates higher pruning. 
When trees are growing thickly on streets, it is often necessary 
to prune them high to let in sufficient sunlight, and when 
different types of trees are planted together, such as maples and 
elms, high pruning is often necessary so that the high canopy 
or gothic-arch effect formed by the elm trees may not be des- 
troyed; and if a more or less symmetrical type is desired in 
individual specimens, the removal of certain limbs often changes 
the contour of the trees, much to the advantage of the surround- 
ings. It is not desirable to prune the feathery growths often 
found on the trunks of elms, as they are apparently protective 
in nature; moreover, they add to the character and beauty of 
the tree, taking away much of its conventional appearance. 

As a rule, the limbs on vigorous maple trees will droop about 
1 foot or more a year owing to their increased weight, and it is 
only a short time before they become too low. Limbs over a 
sidewalk may be left lower than over roadways. In rain and 
sleet storms, limbs are heavily weighted and often give trouble 
when too near the ground. 

On country roadsides, pruning should be high enough so 
that limbs will not interfere with the hay and wood traffic. All 
limbs should be cut as close as possible to the tree, and cuts over 



90 



SURGERY: STREET-TRKES 




I'o (o '2 ini-hos in ilinmeter sliouUi bo troatoil aiitisopticiill'y to 
prevoiit docay. Striolly horizontal outs should novor be left, 
siuoo tlioy rotaiu wator. ami ix>t is likoly to rosult. Tho oloanor 
tho out, tho bottor it will hoal; and thoiv is, nioroovor, loss ohanoe 
for subsoquont rottinji'. 

TSvo or nioro outs shoulil bo mado in pnnune; jiraotioaUy all 
largo limbs to provont pooling, and on limbs of any sizo it is 

necessary to make 
tho inoision on the 
imdor side for the 
samo reason. After 
ronuning tho limbs 
with a saw, a mallet 
ami ohisol may be 
used to smooth up 
tho out surfaoe. This 
induoes a better 
oallus growth. Fig's. 
108 and 109 illus- 
trate poor and good 
methods. These and 
some of the other 
illustrations in this 
disoussion are 
adapted from Bulle- 
tin No. 125 of the 
JNIassaohusetts Experiment Station on "Shade-Trees." 

It is well to prune oarefully at the time of transplanting, 
when all sti-eet trees should be trimmed up 8 or 10 feet or more. 
It is also often necessary to cut back some of the branches to 
balance the root-system, and when this is done some of the less 
desirable branehes may be sacrificed, ami those remaining may 
be out back to some extent. 

The praotioo of topping trees is injurious and should never 



^ -'Is* 




M 



lOS. A ooinmon luothod of pruniiiji linihs, result- 
ing ill tho distiguration of tho troo: a, Troo hoforo 
prvniins; h, limb out too oloso. rosult iiiji in tho pool- 
ing of tho hark: 0, luisishtly wound oausod by this 
mothod of pruning. 800 also Figs. Ol!, 93, i)4. 



PRUNING YOUNG STREET TREES 



91 



be resorted to except in special cases. All of the reserve 
material in the tree is stored in the roots, stem, and branches, 
and in a transplanted tree this is sufficient to develop the foliage. 
It is necessary that a young transplanted tree should have a 
certain amount of foliage for growth and development, since 
the rapidity of growth is dependent on leaf development. 

The type of trees termed "bean poles," or trees with the tops 
cut away to such an extent that there are no limbs left, is not 
suited, therefore, to transplanting. Such trees as the willow 
will survive any 
amount of mutila- 
tion, but elms, 
maples, and others 
must be handled 
more carefully to 
give the best results. 

Pruning has a 
marked effect on the 
conformity of the 
tree. Pruning the 
branches or second- 
ary organs directs 
the energies of 

growth to the trunk, whereas topping, or the destruction of 
th(; header, has the reverse effect. Continual pruning of the 
lower branches induces the tree to grow taller than otherwise, 
and in some locations is advantageous to the tree. Topping is 
destructive to the formation of typical crowns in such trees as 
the elm, hornbeam, and others, whereas in other trees, as the 
Carolina poplar, topping or pollarding has a tendency to thicken 
them up and to make them more desirable shade-trees. The 
configuration of the crowns of maple trees is modified to some 
extent by topping when young, and this modification is mani- 
fested by the branches assuming more of a vertical direction. 




109. The proper method of pruning large limbs: 
a, Tree before pruning; b, .showing relative dis- 
tance of first cut from the tree-trunk; c, the same 
with limbs cut close and the scars finished with a 
mallet and chisel. 



92 SURGERY: STREET-TREES 

The cutting back of old trees is visually followed by dis- 
appointment, and it is often a question as to whether it is worth 
while, although such trees, if not too far gone, may be restored 
to a more or less vigorous condition by judicious prunmg, 
tillage, and feeding. When ehn branches a foot or more in 
diameter are topped, nothing but a bushy growth results. By 
removing all but a single sprout, much better growth may be 
secured. 

The tools required in pruning street-trees are as follows: for 
general work, a good coarse-tooth wide-set saw, (five teeth to 
the mch) ; for larger limbs, a small hand cross-cut saw, and for 
smaller Ihnbs not easily accessible a pole-saw is convenient. 
Pole-saw blades may be ordered through hardware dealere. 
These may be fitted to poles of any desired length. A pole- 
hook, which can be made by a blacksmith, is often useful for 
removing the small dead branches. In the letting doAra of 
large limbs, a set of blocks and strong ropes are necessary, 
and in the felling of trees, a cross-cut saw is indisjiensable. The 
above are the most essential tools for pruning shade-trees, 
although there are many others which are extremely useful 
and time-saving, such as ropes of various sizes, iron wedges for 
felling trees, axes, mallets, and chisels, laddei-s, and spurs for 
climbing trees. 

Disinfectants for ivowids and cavities. 

There are many erroneous ideas concerning the effective- 
ness and use of disinfectants in general. This is particularly 
true of those used in tree work. Because a certain disinfectant 
is used successfully for one puipose, it does not follow that it is 
applicable to all. As a matter of fact, all disinfectants are limited 
in their usefulness owing to the great variation in organisms as 
regards amenability to treatment by chemical substances. 
Disinfectants therefore possess specific rather than general 
properties. Copper sulfate, for example, is remarkably effective 



DISINFECTANT DRESSINGS 93 

when applied to reservoirs and ponds for cleaning out objec- 
tionable growths of many kinds, even when used at 1 to 1,000,000 
parts or at 1 to 10,000,000 parts, while to be effective against 
the common blue mold (Penicillium), which is often found in 
the wood of dead trees, a solution of about 1 to 30, or several 
thousand times stronger, is required. 

In the disinfection of wood-tissues the following points should 
be considered. The disinfectant should be capable of penetrat- 
ing wood-tissues. An oily substance which has more penetrat- 
ing power is far better adapted to this purpose than a watery 
solution. The substance should be only slightly volatile and 
should keep its original form, or at all events, its antiseptic 
properties, indefinitely. Copper sulfate, corrosive sublimate, 
formalin, lime-sulfur, and bordeaux mixture, have been used 
as disinfectants and preservatives in the treatment of tree 
cavities, scars, and wounds, and while all of them have specific 
disinfecting properties it does not necessarily follow that they 
are adapted to wood-tissues. The physical properties of a 
chemical substance as a preservative for wood-tissue, must, 
therefore, be taken into consideration, as well as its antiseptic 
properties. 

The above-named substances possess limited powers of 
penetration and have little or no permanent antiseptic value 
when applied to tree-wounds. Coal-tar is also objectionable 
because of its lack of penetrating power, and as it becomes hard 
it loses its fungicidal value. A thick non-penetrating material 
applied to wood is not only of no value, but becomes an inju- 
rious agent, as shown by the treatment of shingles on roofs: the 
old practice of tarring roofs simply induced decay because the • 
tar coating conserved moisture in the shingles, and decay 
followed more rapidly than in the untreated shingles. Coal- 
tar, however, is useful in covering surfaces having previously 
been treated antiseptically. And in fact the use of creosote, 
followed by coal-tar, constitutes one of the best scientific 



94 



SURGERY; STREET-TREES 



treatments known, especially for exposed wounds. On the 
other hand, paint which contains plenty of oil is valuable, as 
has been proved by years of experience, but it lacks 
durability. 

Shellac dissolved in alcohol is serviceable in filling the pores 
of wood and ]ireventinj!; diH'ay, and therefore is of some value 

as a wound-dressing. Gas- 
tar and liquid asphaltum 
are also sometimes used to 
cover woimds, and there are 
si)e('ially pre})ared paints 
and other substances. Even 
common painter's oil is ex- 
cellent for the treatment 
of wounds, as it prevents 
checking of the wood-tissue, 
and as the transpiration 
current remains practically 
normal by reason of obviat- 
ing the checking of the 
wood, trees will support a 
large amount of foliage when 
badly girdled. It is especially suitable for bark-wounds, which 
should first be properly shaped and their surfaces scraped before 
oil or other substances are applied. Practically all disinfectants 
injure delicate tissue, such as the cambium layer, but it should 
be borne m mind that the cambium always dies back to a cer- 
tain extent when exposed to the air and more of this injury 
results from desiccation than from the use of antiseptics. 

The requirements, therefore, for a wound-dressing for street- 
trees are, first, a permanent penetrating disinfectant, and, 
second, a durable covering. The substances which best meet 
the requirements in deep wounds in old non-growing tissue 
are creosote followed by coal-tar. 




no. 



A jiiHid i''<^ii braco on the loft; :ui 
improper dovioo on the rijiht. 



HOLDING THE PARTS TOGETHER 



95 



Chaining and bolting trees. 

In many cases it is necessary to r-ender trees more secure by 
bolting or chaining the parts together. As this process is not 
necessarily always expensive, it should be much more used than 
at present, for many valuable trees are rendered practically 
worthless by the loss of large limbs in wind-storms and from 
accidents. The elm, although a very tenacious tree with wood 
extremely difficult to work up into fuel, is very likely to split, 
and for this reason it is advisable to chain and bolt the main 
branches. For an outlay of $10 to $15 it is often possible to 
save a-tree worth $150 to $200. 

Different devices are employed for strengthening trees, some 
of which are objectionable and do more harm than good. It 




111. Two nietliods of bracing a 
crotch. The lower method is never 
admissible. The upper method is 
good, although chain or wire cable 
is sometimes preferable to a rod. 




112. The hook-bolt and 
small chain. 



has been a common practice to place chains around limbs to 
prevent their splitting apart, but as the tree develops the chain 
is imbedded in the bark, resulting in partial girdling and ulti- 
mately disfiguring and injuring the tree. Another method 
which invariably results in girdling consists in placing strong 



96 



SURGERY; STREET-TREES 



bauds of iron around limbs and trunks. Figs. 110 and 111 
illustrate these points. 

In rendering trees more secure, some operators prefer to use 
an ii-on rod rather than a chain, but the chain system is the 
better for most purposes. If it is necessary to fasten branches 
near the point of forking, when swaying is limited, an iron rod 
is preferable; but for connecting limbs 
a few feet apart more or less remote 
from their junction with the trunk 
(^when swaying is more pronounced), 
the chain method is superior, since a 
rod is likely to break owing to its 





113. Lonjiitudiual section of limb, showing 
Tiicthod of bolting: B, bark; X, wood; II, eye- 
bolt; W, waslier; C, elastic cement. 



114. The bracing of the 
branches. The chains show 
ineffective positions, and they 
are of little use. The dotted 
line ^0 shows the proper angle 
of attachment. A bolt to hoki 
a split or cleft is shown at B. 



rigidity when the tree is swayed. A chain is easier to place tiian 
a solid rod, as less attention has to be given to boring the holes. 
If one or two Imks, however, are placed in the rod, as is some- 
times done, this difficulty is obviated to some extent. Figs. 112, 
113, and 114, display methods of bolting and chaining. 

The use of galvanized stranded guy wire, or cables, such as 
are employed by electric companies (Fig. 115), is superior to 
either chains or rods for holding in place defective limbs and 



CUMNINCJ rilK liliANCHEH 



97 





tt^:^- 



115. I{olt;-arifJ-wir<; uicXhod (A l;raf:in«. 



branch(.'S. Thowj wiic cabhj.s may ho .secured in various Hizos 
and arc much cheaper and stronger than chains. The tensile 
strength of these cables varies according to size and quality, 

from a few thousand 
pounds to a number of 
tlifjusands of pounds; 
but the more flexible 
cables are best suited 
to this work. A chain 
is as strong as its weakest link or member, which sometimes 
may be very weak: whereas a strand(;d wire cable is much 
more homcjgeneous in its structure. The strain which it is 
necessary U) overcome in swaying trees is often very great and 
many chains lireak when the links are composed of ^ or ^- 
inch iron. Wire cables and chains are oft(;n used with eye- 
bolts, provided with wa.sher and nuts (Fig. 113), but the 
eye-bolt often constitutes the weakest feature. It is important, 
therefore, that only th(; best 
quality of iron should be 
used in the construction of 
eye-bolts. Morover, work 
of this nature demands skil- 
ful blacksmithing. 

When stranded cables 
are used, the eye-bolt 
method is sometimes dis- 
pensed with. In this case, 
the wire passes through a 
hole in the tree, and around 
an embfidded pi(!ce of iron. 
The wire method is also 
valuable in temporarily 
rendering weak or danger- 
ous limbs safe, and in 

G 




110. The braciriK of i\\i: branches. 
IJotted linoH (\) and (jrokon lint^H Ci) show 
incorrect method. The Holid iinew (2) show 
the correct arrangement. 



OS 



srin;t:iiY: sTiih:h:T /wa'avs' 




At 
J 



1 



1 





:ii\i'l\orin,ii' moiv or loss lioi'ivpit tiws, whii-h nmy still iiave 
soiitimoutal valiu\ (o stroi\,ij; supports. 

JMuoh of tho t'haiuiujj; and boltinjj; ohsorvinl in troos follows 
cxtivnioly poor nioohanioal prinriplos, Tho chains or bolts aro 
ofton too small, and aiv soUloni plai'od advantajioously as ivijanls 
loviMaiio, most of thom Ivinji too low or too near tho orotoh, 
thus roi\uiring too nuioh strain to ho ovoroomo. \\'hon largo 

limbs aro involvod, 
most o\i^-lnWts 
sln>uUl bo 1 inoh in 
diamotor, and o\- 
tond through tho 
tivo, thoso boing 
suppUod with a ii- 
tn- -I - inoh washor 
and nut (Fig. li;i\ 
Tho praotioo of 
sorowing oyo - bol t s 
or hooks into a troo 
for a sliort distanoo 

I IX. niiViMoiit tiK-tlunls of att.'U'hiiis wirt^s to tivos: r . .. 

A. wiivnttMohod to l:tsl>olt and troo {>rotoot»\l ti-om it l<^^l' l'^^^ purpOSO Ot 

liv wihhIoh lUoi'ks; Z. on>!*s-S(.vtiou of saiuo: M, wiiv ,if f ,>,.l,nio' <i o)\«iii-i 

loops pl:u-iHl tijihtly nrouiui tivo. oausinssmllinji; F. |»H'»*- 'i'"r> '* t luun 

sl\(nvin>; attaohnuMit of tivlloy i:uy wiros: ,1, li>oso loop i<j5 bad, inasmuoh as 
fastoiioii with damps ami sopanitint fr»un tivo l\v 

blocks; K. cnvss-sootion of sjuno; O, on>osotod oak thoy may bO inilloil 

lUooks with s:ri>ovo X to support tho wiro. A, B, aiul ^,,i ^„ u., ^i. >„ .iv 

F possess oloinonts of dans^'r to trvvs. ^^^J^ ^^l brokoU otl 

with tho vslightost 
strain. Only a bolt passing through tho tivo and providod with 
a washor and nut is suitablo for suoh work. 

In any systom of stivngthoning troos. whotiior by wiros or 
othor mot hods, tho bost moohanioal arrangomont shouUl bo 
obsorvoil and a oaroful ostiinato of tiio amount of load tiiat is 
iiooossary to oariy siiouUl bo dotornuni\l, togothor witii tlio 
propor anglo of attaohmont. Tho chain or wiro shouUl bo far 
within tho limits of safotv. ai\d sinoo tho limbs or bi;uu'ln>s havo 



rill': iikAri\(. (,h Till: Toi' 



09 



a t<!rid(;rj(;y to rrjovc, inwardH in cfjKl woat,h<;r, cauKing chairiH 
and wircH U) }x!C(;rnfj ulack, all wircH Hhould Fk; drawn liglit at 
1,hc;ir inHlallation. Fig. 110 illuHtratoH good and ba/i bracing. 
In many cawjH of ohairjing and bolting, tiuj wahh(;r and nut 
an; phw;od on th(i out.sidfj of th(; bark, and oftxm no attx;rnpt ih 
mad*; lo (MJt off thr; cnd.s of tbo boltH. 'i'ho unKiglitlinoss of this 
method makcH it objw;tionabl(;. It m bettor to covor tlio nut 
and wa«h(;r, which may Ikj af^compJiHhwJ by countersinking 
thf^rn into the wood, by means of a gauge or extennion bit, and 
th(; fr(;(; end.s (jf the bolts Hhould be cut off elow; to the nuts. 
Th(; waHh(;r and 
nut should b(; well 
embedded in thick 
paint or coal-tar 
and covered with 
eitJier elastic or 
Portland cement, 
allowing the ce- 
ment to come flush 
with the exterior 
surface of the 

wr f fl Rv t h i 1 'iivity; f, cavity clcanofl out and fill';d with (■aincut. 

method the end of the bolt and the washer and nut are covered, 
and the scar will heal over in a short time, leaving no trace. 

Since the poles of public-service corj>oration« are often 
attacfied to trees by guy-wires, care should be taken to prevent 
injury to the tree from girdling and nibbing (Tig. 117). A 
larg(! wire loop surrounding a tree and properly insulated from 
the trunk by special hardwood blocks, is generally harmless 
and is more desirable on streets than any other method. 

Treating fkep ami decayed cavities. 

Decay(;fl cavities are very undesirable, since the fungi and 
insects extend their range of activity, causing decay anrl shorten- 




vr 



118. Th'; 'evolution of a ciavity and rnothod of tr<;atint< 
th<; harri':: a, lonj< Mtuh i';ft fror/i pnjninK; b> h<:ujiiiiirin 
of d';f:ay; i;, rnoro su\v<x!i<:(-A HtaK';; d, cavity formed in 
the wood ; ft, lonKit'idinal Hcction of the tnjnk whowing 



100 



Slimt.U Y: :^'rHliET-Tl{EES 



ing tho triv's litV. C^avitict^ ivsiilt from poor priininti- of limbs, 
tho breaking of branclios, ami othor injuries wlneh are not fol- 
lowed by proper treatment at the time, as explained in Kig. 1 IS. 
The tivatment of eavities naturally involves some expense, 
but if a tuv is of value, if only sentimental, it is worth treating. 
Many trees, whieh to the easual observer 
would appear to be of little eonsequence, 
have assoeiations 
whieh may be highly- 
cherished. The loea- 




\-;f^-' 



:\ 




119. Tho hoalins of 
a wound. Most aotivo 
hoalinjr follows most 
direct lines of trans- 
forenoe of plastie ma- 
terials, namely, alonjx 
the sides of the wound. 



120. Diagram to 
don\onstrate the ol>- 
jeet of treating i"»vi- 
ties. Upper tiijure 
.showing eavity of 
long standing, with 
callus g r o w t h s 
curved in, whieh, if 
it had been tilled, 
would be as repre- 
sented below. 




121. Preparing a 
body wound for 
iilling. 



lion, also, is often important. The tree may furnish sliade whieh 
cannot be dispensed with, and even if old and decayed it is often 
more satisfactory to treat it than to wait for a new tree to grow. 
The rationale underlying the cleaning and tilling of cavities 
is similar to that in dentistry, and if the work is properly per- 
formed and if antiseptic conditions are maintained, the length 
of a tree's life n\av be considerablv extended. 



CA vrriES 



101 



For centurifjs trcoH have Vxjen treated in ono way or anothfir, 
and caviiioH have hern') filled withi wood, brick, nUmc., and other 
HubKtaneeH; but, a« a rule, this work ha,s \)(Uin very crude, and 
}ia« probably a(;cornpliKh(;d little or nothing toward the pre- 
venlic^n of decay. In thf; pa«t few yearn, however, more tech- 
nical attention haw been given to the treatment of decayed 

cavities in trees, and many 
exarnplfjK may be Wien, here 
and tliere, although it must be 
confessed that as yet the work 
is in more or less of an experi- 
mental stage. 

The object of treating 
decayed cavities is to prevent 
further decay and to prolong 
the life of the tree. The first 
requisite, therefore, is to re- 
move all decayed and infected 
tissue, which is accomplished 
by a thorough cleaning out of 
the cavity. The second requi- 
site ifi to treat antiseptically 
all exposed tissues susceptible 
to decay, preventing further 
disintegration. The disinfect- 
ing substance sliould be one that can be saf(;ly used and be 
pennanently effective. Creosote is one of the best antisep- 
tics, since it possesses superior properties of penetrating wood 
and is quite permanent as a disinfectant. Third, to fill the 
cavity with some substance if necessary, or at least to cover the 
surface, or orifice, that the callus may grow over the cavity. 
Trees are s(;ldom if ever strengthenc^d by filling, as is fre- 
quently maintain(;d; on the other hand, they are too often 
weakened by ov(;rloading, although ultimately, as new tissue 




122. 



Cavity in valuable yellow oak 
being prepared for filiinK. 



UVJ 



SIRGKRY: STRKKT TRKES 



devolops ovor tho surt'aoo of the tilUiiii'. stivugthoiiiup; may fol- 
low as a ivsult of ixiowth. Whou Portland conioiit has boon 
omploYiHl in tilliuji' oavitios, a tolorably dry romout i^about ono 
part coniont to thuv parts of sand), thoroiijjhly tanipod and 
woll trowoUod on the surface, has proved most elYeetive ajiainst 
eraekine;. The use of l\>rtland cement has many drawb.aeks 
in the tilling of cavities, sii\ce its physical properties are entirely 
ditYerent from those of wood. If the cavity is not well cleaned 
and thoroughly tivateil with antiseptic, tlecay is greatly acceler- 
ated and in such cases it would be better not to till the tree 
at all. Moreover, there are many trees with cavities that do 
not neoii tilling, and when theiv is nothing to be gaineii b\ 
the work it is better to omit it. Sometin\es trees are greatly 
weakened by cutting away too much sound wood, and when 
they are unfortimately overloaded with cen\ent they are likely 
to fall a pivy to the tii"st tempest, thus defeating the fundamental 
object of tree surgery. Old decrepit trees that liave in\ly a few 
years to survive and which may possess largely sentimental 
value, may be successfully treated by simply removing the 
decayed substance and applying antiseptic treatment; and in 



r:.> ^« 









123. The cavity cleanwl on tho rii;ht; IiIKhI uu tho loft. 



I'lLLlSC (A VITIES 



103 



c{iw;h in which the calliiH ha« j^rown into the cavity to Buch an 
(;xt<;nt JiH U> forrn coriHifJ<;rnbl<; wood, which naturally Ktrfirij^-hciLS 
th(; tn^;, it in oft<;n ina^lvihahlc t,o int'-rfcrc with if. Filling Ih 
not an end in itw;lf, hut only a mcanw. 





124. A wr;ll-fiJl<.'J buhul cavity. 



12.0. Fillc^J cavity arnoug 
the l/ratitihttH. 



The chani/;t(!r of the trfiatrnent must vary with each cavity, 
yet all calhch ff>llow the applif;ation of one w;t of principh^s. 
The (IJHCUHHion will be aided by can;fui attention to Figs. 122 
ix) 127, which illustrate, variouH standard practices. 

JiesideK the U;ndency of Portland cernent to criutk, it pos- 
scisWiH othier disadvantages, such as hability to dis|jlacement from 
frost, shrinkapfe from the wr>od on drying, inducing a tendency 
to bleeding, and, under certain conditions, favoring the growth 
of organisms causing decay. ()n the other hand, the hard sur- 
face produced by cem(;nt has its advantages in directing the 
callus growth, also in bf;ing plastic when applied, and it is well 
mlaptx;d U) irregular surface requirements. Cavities near the 
ground are rnucli better adapted to Portland cement than those 
higher up where; there is constant swaying. 

T}i(;r(5 is nf> real object in filling a cavity completely, and 



104 



SURGERY; STREET-TREES 



'4'i^'' 



there are some important, disadvantages. A surface-covering 
of cement about 4 or 5 inches thick is better than sohd filhngs. 
After a thorough cleaning of the cavity has been accomphshcd 
and properly treated with reliable antiseptic, it is better to 

Jeave as nuich of the interior of 
the cavity open or untilled as pos- 
sible; but in order to direct the 
flow of the callus growth, the sur- 
face covering of cement or other 
material is essential in most cases. 
If cement is used, however, it is 
not necessary to have it more 
than 3 to G inches thick but it 
should be well reinforced with 
two or more heavy layers of 
strong wire mesh securely stapled 
; to the wood, and in large cavities 
other reinforcement with iron is 
essential. To secure a completely 
sealed cavity, grooves made in the 
cement near its junction to the wood and filled witli elastic 
cement are effective in keeping out moisture, when properly 
apjilied. Various methods of reinforcing cement with iron rods 
and wire mesh, have been utilized for the purpose of prevent- 
ing the dislocation of the cement in cavities, and much stress 
has been laid on the practice of laying the cement in sections. 
Such devices have proved of value to a certain extent, but 
they have not solved the difficulties to be met with in cavity 
work. Some attenipt has been made to use otluu' substances 
than Portland cement in such work but these substitutes have 
not all ])roved satisfactory. 

In some cases, metal has been effective as exterior coverings 
of cavities, but usually it has failed to give }HM-manent results, 
and since it is affected by changes of temperature, it becomes 




.,„.c..„ 



126. A cloaiiod jiirdlo, ready for 
fho tillitis;. 



FILLING CAVITIES 



105 



loose and under certain conditions it readily disintegrates. On 
the whole metal has proved of less value then cement in tree 
repair work. 

Asphalt has been employed to some extent for cavity work 
as has also a combination of asphalt and sawdust mixed in pro- 
portion of one part asphaltum to three or four parts of sawdust, 
for cavities in swaying branches, and one part of asphaltum 
to six parts of sawdust for cavi- 
ties in the trunks. The sawdust 
is mixed with the asphaltum 
when hot and the material is 
applied in a heated condition. 
This combination is not so rigid as 
cement, adapting itself more read- 
ily to the movement of the tree. 

Cavities arc affected materially 
by changes in temperature and 
other meteorological agencies, and 
any filling substance must adapt 
itself to these conditions. What 
is greatly needed in cavity work is 
a material that possesses physical 
properties similar to wood, and 
at the same time it must be dur- 
able, easily and cheaply applied, 
and readily adjusted to the cavity 
orifice. To meet these require- 
ments, use is now being made of 
chemically treated wooden blocks 
as a surface covering of cavities. 
These blocks are laid in cement 
and are reinforced by metal strips 
securely fastened to the sides. 
The interior is left open. 







127. A wtll-fillcd and reinforced 
body crack. 



106 SURGERY; STREET-TREES 

In the treatment of cavities with antiseptic it is important 
that they should be thoroughly disinfected. To accomplish 
this it is frequently advisable that the cavity, after being cleaned, 
should remain open for a few days and the antiseptic treat- 
ment repeated, as the wood in freshly cleaned cavities is often 
too moist to disinfect thoroughly. 

It should also be borne in mind in treating cavities that the 
filling substance should not extend outward beyond the wood. 
Neither should metal or other material be extended over the 
bark, inasmuch as it always gives rise to bad conditions. The 
shape of the cavity is important; it should be such that the 
healing substance or plastic materials should flow more or less 
uniformly along the edge. Therefore, the cavity, or at least 
the bark surrounding a cavity, should be more or less pointed 
or rounded at the top, and when the cavity does not extend to 
the ground it should be pointed in the same way at the bottom. 
It is not necessaiy, however, that the cavity itself should be 
round or pointed at either end. There is no objection to a 
square opening if the bark is cut so as to be round or pomted 
at the top and bottom. The same holds true in large wounds 
resulting from pruning, and for the shapmg up of bark wounds 
on the trunks. 



CHAPTER V 
THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

We are now prepared to entertain a discussion on some of 
the more underlying considerations governing the rational 
pruning of plants. It is a difficult field, for no two plants are 
alike, and many and various objects are to be attained. It is 
impossible to instruct any person in pruning merely by show- 
ing him how to do the work on a given plant; for the very next- 
plant may present a new set of problems. If there are no gen- 
eralizations or principles to be announced, then writing on the 
subject is well-nigh useless. The numbered statements or 
"principles" in this chapter are not intended to be dogmatic, for 
there are undoubtedly exceptions, or apparent exceptions, to 
all of them; but it is hoped that they separate some of the most 
important truths from the great mass of assertions and contra- 
dictions. 

There are two great classes of ideas concerned in the prun- 
ing of plants — those associated directly with the welfare and 
behavior of the plant, and those associated with the mere form 
or size or convenience to which the plant shall attain. The 
former includes questions of pruning proper; the latter com- 
prises questions of training, which depend primarily on the 
taste and abilities of the pruner. Shall I grow my trees to round 
heads or conical heads, high heads or low heads, one trunk or 
two trunks? Whichever you like; it is largely a question of 
personal preference and opportunity. 

Of all the operations connected with horticulture, pruning, 
shaping, and training bring the person into closest contact 
and sympathy with the plant. One directs and cares for the 

(107) 



lOS THE PRIXCIPLES 

plant tenderly and thoughtfully, working out his ideas :is he 
would in the training and giiidh\g of a child. There an? some 
persons, to be sure, who cannot feel this s\nnpatlietic contact 
with a plant: they are the ones who, if they prune at all, use 
:m axe or machete or a com-knife. If a }>erson caimot love a 
plant after he has pnined it, then he has either done a poctr job 
or is devoid of emotion. It is a pleasure to till the soil and to 
smell the fresli crumbly earth, but the earth does not grow; it 
is still a clod. The plant responds to everj* :vfltectionate touch. 
Sprajnng, that modem warfare of horticulture, is not to be 
compared with pruning in producing a sense of fellowship with 
phmts. In fact, spraying h:is the opposite effect \\-ith me. When 
I have sprayed a plant, I am conscious that I have besmeared it 
and have taken a mean advantage of a lot of imiocent :md 
defenseless bugs; and I w:int to quit the premises forthwith. 
The reasons for pruning may be ranged under sev^eral general 
heads: 

1. To modify the \igor of the plant. 

2. To produce larger and better stems, leaves, flowers, or 
fruits. 

3. To keep the plant within manageable sliape and limits. 

4. To change the habit of the plant from more or less wood- 
bearing or fruit-bearing (or flower-bearmgV 

5. To open a tree to Hght and air, for the betterment of the 
product. 

6. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 

7. To control the spread of disease, as in pear-bUght. 

S. To protect the plant against winds and snows, inasmuch 
:is some om:iiuental trees and shrubs are particularly liable 
to uijur>- if allowed to take their natural shajx\ 

9. To expedite spraying and harvesting. 

10. To facihtate tillage and to improve the convenience of 
the plantation. 

11. To train the plant to some desired shape. 



FHUNING FO/i WOOD 



100 



1. Heavy pruning of the top of a plant in any year, .so lomj an the 

plomi ifi not injured in its nutrition, lev/In to incrcMHe the 

production of atromj vegetative grcnuth of the remaining partn. 

A plant growing under normal conditions has a balance of 

top and root. These two partes mutually supply, support, and 

nourish each other. The one must respond to the otiier. The 

more root, the greater the amount of crude mat^irials taken in; 

and the greater the amount of thesrj materials, the greater must 

be the elaborating leaf -surf ace (all other things being the same), 

an(^the greater, therefore, the growth of all parts of the plant. 

If a large part of the top is removed and the root is untouched, 

the balance is broken. An equal extent of root supplies a smaller 

extent of top. There is more supply 

for all the remaining })ranches. The 

usual result is greater inunediate 

growth of these parts than they 

normally would have made, although 

some tipie may be required to grow 

as much wood as was removed, and 

it is not supposed that the tree will 

grow larger thereby; or new parts 

may arise either as suckers from 

adventitious buds or shoots from 

dormant buds; or the destiny of 

some buds may be changed from 

flower - bearing to shoot - making. 

These vigorous growths are spoken 

of as "wood" by the horticulturist 

in distinction from "fruit;" but this 

"pruning for wood" does not at all 

imply that a greater total weight of 

actual ligneous structure is pro- 128. Heavy pruning induces 

duced. Continuously repeated, year vigorous wood growth (in thLs 

■^ ' . ' "' case, a profusion of water- 

by year, very heavy pruning tends sprouts). 




110 TUK riilACIPLES 

to decrease size; but occasional pruning of this kind tends, as 
stated, to produce sti-onp; shoots. 

Let the reader consider tlie behavior of the dwarf ]iear tree 
in Fig. 128, an example that every pruner can duplicate from 
exi)eiience and observation. All these considerations exjilain the 
gardener's rule that in roses, and other onianiental jilants, weak 
kinds should be heavily pruned and strong kinds lightly pruned. 

The testimony in support of the statement that heavy prun- 
uig tends to promote wood growth is not uniform, and some of 
the experiments seem to contradict it. Much depends on just 
what is meant by the words, that is, on the nature of the meas- 
urements. At the Woburn Exjx'rimental Fruit Farm (England), 
Pickering foimd that on dwarf apple trees "hard pruning has cer- 
tainly not induced extra growth, but, on the contraiy, has 
diminished it." He writes, however, that it no doubt "favors the 
fomuition of a large number of new shoots and probably these 
will grow to a greater length during the season than in the case of 
a more lightly pruned tree," and this affirms the general pomt 
at issue. Of course it is to be expected that hard pruning year 
after year is a dwarfing process, but this continuous and repeated 
practice is not assumed by those who state that heav>' pruning 
induces strong growth of wood-length. 

If it is necessary to resort to severe pruning for the purpose 
of correcting the sliape or trainmg of a plant, and it is desired 
at the same time to avoid excessive shoot groAvth, the operator 
should remove the superfluous parts gradually. This caution 
is important, even in the training of herbaceous plants. A 
grower of winter tomatoes writes that when planted thickly 
in the beds the foliage needs heavy trimming to keep it within 
bounds; and this trinuning must be performed frequently, and 
only a moderate proportion of the leafage removed at one time, 
for if hea\y trimming is practised it will cause a fresh strong 
growth which splits open the partly developed fruits, exposing 
the interior or seed cells of the fruit and rendering it unfit for 



HEAVY PRUNING 111 

sale. His practice is to remove the outer end of the leaf and 
afterward take off a joint at a time as the leaves on the inner 
part increase in size under the trimming, as the first two leaflets 
eventually attain almost as large size as the entire leaf under 
ordinary treatment. The gardener tells me that the sphtting 
of the fruits would also result from stopping the ends of the 
shoots while the plants are still in growth. Of course, the fresh 
shoots coming up from the roots would tend to overcome this 
vigorous growth of the plants and consequent sphtting. 

As heavy pruning is a violent process, so is it to be practised 
with caution. In some cases special injuries are Hkely to follow; 
for example, it is said that in the Missouri section it greatly 
increases the ravages of canker on the Ben Davis apple tree. 

2. Heavy pruning of the root tends to lessen the production of wood. 

The food-supply is cut off. Root-pruning is to be compared to 
reduced feeding. The reader knows that he prunes the tops of 
transplanted plants because the roots have been cut, and he 
must thereby reduce the area to be supported. Root-pruning 
is practicable chiefly in the growing of specimen plants, or in 
small amateur plantations, particularly when trees are trained 
on walls, cordons, and the like, that is, when it is desired to 
dwarf the plants. It has little place in usual American horti- 
cultural operations. (Consult Chapter VI, page 163.) 

3. Vigorous pruning of the top for a year or two tends to rejuve- 

nate weak or declining plants. 

The rej uvenation following rather heavy pruning is probably 
because the remaining parts receive more supply. The proposi- 
tion is really a corollary of Section 1, but it has such distinct and 
important applications that it is well to give it an independent 
statement. When plants begin to fail from general debility 
(not from the attacks of insects or fungi) , manure or prune them 
heavily, or do both. It is generally best to remove the weakest 



112 THE PRINCIPLES 

parts, particularly if the decline has progressed far; but if it 
is desired to save the particular branches which are involved, 
a heavy pruning of the healthy part may be expected to throw- 
new activity into the weak part. In many cases, however, it is 
impossible to rejuvenate weak branches; but suckers or water- 
sprouts may be developed, and these may form a new head. 
Old and decrepit peach trees are often headed-back severely 
for the express purpose of securing this new wood. 

Under Section 1 (page 110) we found that weak kinds or 
varieties of plants may be pruned severely and strong kinds 
moderately. These remarks were meant to apply to plants of 
different habits, not to weakness due to disease or debility; 
yet the rule holds good in either case — heavy pruning for new 
wood, light pruning to maintain the habitual condition. 

One must be careful, however, not to apply these contrasts 
to differing branches on the same plant, for one branch may 
appropriate the food of another (see page 117); if, therefore, 
it is desired to even up the branches on any plant, prune the 
strong shoots severely and the others only moderately, and 
thereby throw the energy into the weaker shoots. This type 
of pruning is often performed in the summer. Meehan's 
Monthly gives the following advice on this point: "This sum- 
mer pruning is especially effective with coniferous trees. In 
the case of pines, we know that in the springtime three or four 
branches push out at the end of last year's sprouts, looking like 
gas-burners. The central one is very vigorous and those on the 
sides are weaker. If we pinch out the point of the stronger ones 
the sap at once flows into the weaker ones, and they become 
strong, and new buds form at the place where the strong one 
was pinched off. Next year this bud continues the growth of 
the branch almost as straight as if it had never been pinched back. 
We can pinch off the terminal bud of the main stem, a new bud 
forming a leader without any bend. One who understands this 
business of summer pruning of evergreens can so manage that 



WINTER INJURIES 



113 



trees form an absolutely perfect specimen from the ground to 
the top, no one branch bemg any stronger than another. The 
chief thing to remember is that, in summer pruning, the weak 
branches of the shoot should not be touched; it is only the 
stronger ones that require checking." 

These remarks have an important bearing 
on the treatment to be given to severely win- 
ter-frozen trees. There are many unsolved 
problems associated with the pruning of winter- 
injured trees in very trying climates. There 
are evidently two factors concerned in the 
question — the general effect of heavy pruning 
on the tree, and the injury resulting from the 
wounds. It is a common opinion that there is 
excessive and injurious evaporation from win- 
ter-made wounds in cold and dry climates, but 
this lacks proof; and in any event the pruning 
of winter-injured trees is performed late in 
winter or in spring, after the injury becomes 
apparent. The greatest danger Hes in leaving 
prongs or too long stubs. 

There is no uniformity of experience and 
advice on the pruning of winter-damaged trees. 
Much depends on the nature of the injury and 
the condition of the trees previous 
to it. Sometimes the injury is in 
the top of the tree and sometimes it 
is in the trunk and main branches; 
in the former case, heavy pruning 
would not be injurious. The dead 
wood is no longer of use to the plant, 
and this should be removed as soon 
as the extent of the injury is deter- 
mined, preferably when growth starts 




i! 



129. Showing the new tissue 
formed around winter-injured 
wood. 



H 



114 



THE PRINCIPLES 



in spring; the parts should be cut back to clean live wood. If the 
plant was well matured before going into the winter, so that it 
has "heart" enough to withstand the treatment, a heavy prun- 
ing beyond the limits of the dead wood is likely to invigorate 
the tree or vine and aid it to overcome the injury. Fig. 129 

shows the new wood of a recuper- 
ated tree fonning around the old 
mjured part. 

How to treat grape-vines that 
are frozen after growth has begun 
is also a perennial question. Much 
will depend on the severity of the 
freeze, and on the extent of growth 
that had taken place. As with trees, 
the injured parts are of no further 
use to the plant, and they are likely 
to weaken it by causing it to lose 
much of its moisture. The rational 
procedure, therefore, is to strip off 
all the frozen shoots soon after the 
disaster, so as to allow the energies 
of the plant to divert themselves 
to the production of new shoots. 
When the injured parts ai'e soft and small, it is customary to 
remove them by pulling off, rather than by cutting them. 
In well-pruned vineyards the cost of stripping ought not to 
exceed 




130. Renewal of the upward 
direction in a broken tree. 



an acre. 



4. A pruned plant tends to resume its natural habit. 

One plant is unlike every other plant. It may be round- 
headed, conical-headed, veiy straight or strict, prostrate, and 
the like. In whatever way or however nmch the plant may be 
pruned, it makes an effort to regain its former or habitual shape 
and behavior; and the more vigorous or younger the plant, 



THE PLANT RESUMES ITS HABIT 



115 



the more rapidly and completely does it resume its former 
direction. Vigorous firs and spruces make a new leader without 
difficulty; the Northern Spy apple tends to grow erect, how- 
ever much it is pruned, whereas the Longfield tends as persis- 
tently to droop. It is evident, therefore, that the most rational 
pruning — when fruit and the welfare of the plant are chief 
concerns — is that which allows the plant to take its natural 
form, merely correcting its minor faults here and there. In a 
pear orchard, for example, there should be as many types or 
methods of pruning as there are marked varieties of pears. 
Arbitrary patterns are useful only when it is desired to sacrifice 
other considerations to mere form and looks. (See page 215.) 
Patterns are chiefly useful in the growing of plants for certain 
ornamental effects, and when it is necessary — because of lack 
of space, or uncongenial climate, or growing under glass — 
to train to some definite form. In fruit-growing it is well to 
remember that mere handsomeness or comeliness of the plant 
is unimportant. On this point, A. J. Downing writes as fol- 
lows: "Every fruit-tree, grown in the open orchard or garden 
as a common standard, should be allowed to take its natural 
form, the whole effort of the pruner going no further than to 
take out all weak and crowded branches." 




131. Renewal of leaders on trunks crushed to the horizontal. 



116 



THE PRINCIPLES 



One cannot visit a forest or woodlot without observing that 
pnmed and injured trees tend to regain their formal stature. 
Observe how the leader was renewed m Fig. 130 — a tree which 
was once broken over. The new leader, which sprang from the 
declined trunk, now continues the bole of the tree in its upward 
direction. In Fig. 131 several leaders 
have started from the prostrate trunks, 
each one simulating the upward growth 
of the original bole. 

These remarks apply also to the 
roots. It is the commonest notion that 
a tap-root should not be cut, else the 
plant will be shallow-rooted; but a new 
tap — or, what may be better, two or 
three tap-roots — arises from the old 
(from a, Fig. 132). The tap-root is one 
of the ancestral bogies of horticultur- 
ists; and, as with the sap, being out of 
sight, almost any assertion may be made 
of it without danger of disproof. The 
direction of the roots is much influenced 
by the particular piece of earth in 
which they grow, but, beyond this, roots behave much as 
do branches in respect to pruning. 

6. The habit of the plant varies from youth to age. 

Young plants are vigorous and rapid-growing. They tend 
to make, strong gro^vths. Eventually they reach a limit of 
stature, and the nearer they approach that epoch the less rapid 
is the groNvth. Fruit-bearing tends to reduce growth and to 
broaden the top. Young pear trees, particularly of the Kieffer 
type, make very long and erect growths, but when bearing- 
time arrives the growth is less marked and the limbs spread. 
The treatment of a young tree, therefore, may be very different 




132. Renewal of the leader 
on the root. 



WATERSPROUTS AND SUCKERS 117 

from that demanded by the same tree when it arrives at 
maturity. 

6. One part of a plant may live at the expense of another part. 
Wo know that the plant cannot make use of the materials 

taken in by the roots and leaves until they have been elaborated 
in the green parts. The elaborated material is distributed to 
every living and growing point. Some of this material is stored, 
particularly in autumn, and from this store the early bloom and 
growth of spring is partly and sometimes largely made. Strong 
spiTng shoots are supplied from other parts of the plant as well as 
from materials newly appropriated Vjy the roots. Sorauer writes 
that "it must not be forgotten that at the commencement every 
young shoot draws like a parasite upon the food-matter of the 
older branch ; this applies as much to the consumption of water 
as to the stored-up material." 

More than this, one shoot probably may rob another, and 
thereby grow the faster. Shoots may be both parasites and 
robbers. Very vigorous shoots may not have sufficient leaf- 
surface to supply their own needs. Being profusely supplied 
with water, they appropriate building-materials which have 
been elaborated by other branches. Such shoots are water- 
sprouts or suckers. Robbers should be arrested. 

7. Watersprouts are results of a disturbed equilibrium of the 

plant; and the formation of watersprouts is influenced 
more by the vigor of the plant and the amount of pruning 
than by the season of the year in which the pruning is 
performed. 
This is really a corollary to Section 1. We know that heavy 
pruning induces vigorous growth of shoots, and this rapid pro- 
duction may arise either as an elongation of existing shoots or 
as wholly new shoots. When these new shoots are particularly 
lusty, they are watersprouts. Fig. 128 shows an outcome of 
heavy pruning. 



118 THE PRINCIPLES 

If the reader agrees to the above propositions, then he must 
admit that the season of pruning exerts a secondary stimulation 
on the production of watersprouts, however confidently he may 
have asserted to the contrary; for if the plant is not vigorous, 
and if the root force is not in excess of the top, watersprouts 
cannot arise. To be sure, watersprouts may follow the bending 
or twisting of the top, but even in this case the equilibrium of 
root and top is disturbed, as we shall find in Sections 10 and 13. 

It is probable that the season of pruning exerts some in- 
fluence on the appearing of watersprouts. After midsummer, 
watersprouts cannot arise, as a rule, for growth has then ceased 
or has slowed down; and if the plant is pruned at that epoch, 
it may have opportunity to readjust its energies before another 
year, and thereby exert its redundant forces rather more in the 
prolongation of existing growths than in the estabhshing of new. 

The operator should not allow the fear of watersprouts 
to dictate the season of pruning. In fact, watersprouts are a 
result of pruning as weeds are of plowing, and the likelihood of 
the appearing of either is in proportion to the preceding neglect. 
Subsequent pruning is the remedy for watersprouts, as tillage 
is for weeds. 

8. The tendency of 'plants is to grow from the uppermost buds, if 
the shoot arrives at full maturity; and this tendency is most 
pronounced in young plants. 

We have had ample proof of this assertion in Chapters I and 
II. We know that it must be so, also, from the fact that it is 
the natural outcome of competition for position, light and air. 

We may prune in such way as to maintain or augment this 
natural tendency, or to thwart it. The means of checking it are 
of two types — heading-in, and hindering the upward flow of sap 
(as by girdling, notching, bending, twisting, and the like, dis- 
cussed again on page 181, in Chapter VI). To a consideration 
of these means we shall now proceed in Sections 9 and 10. 



CUTTING BACK YOUNG GROWTHS 119 

9. The heading-in of young growths tends to develop the lateral and 
. the dormant buds. 

This is equivalent to saying that heading-in thickens and 
broadens the tops of plants. The objects of heading-in are two 
— to correct an objectionable habit, and to induce fruit-bearing. 
The latter consideration is discussed specifically in Section 15. 

Inasmuch as the shape that a plant shall assume is largely 
a question of personal preference, it is impossible always to 
give good advice respecting the heading-in of trees and shrubs, 
and it may not be necessary to have reasons. The rational 
heading-m of trees for the puipose of correcting the habit 
devolves upon four conditions or factors — the rapidity or extent 
of growth, the distance apart of the plants, whether dwarfs or 
standards, and the personal choice of the owner. 

In fruit-trees, annual growths of 3 feet or more may be 
headed-in, particularly if the trees are close together and it is 
necessary to reduce the size of head. This operation is necessary 
only with young and imfruitful trees, as a rule, for we have 
found (Section 5) that mature and fruit-bearing trees rarely 
grow wantonly. If mature trees are making too much growth, 
the fundailiental remedy is to check the growth rather than to 
cut it off, for heavy heading-in may tend to augment the 
difficulty (Section 1). The growth may be checked by modifying 
the tillage or fertilizing of the plantation, unless the excessive 
growth is due to excessive pruning. 

In dwarf trees, it is essential that heading-in be practised, 
in order that the top shall not overbalance the root. This ques- 
tion is discussed in its special aspects in Chapter VI. 

In general, heading-in resolves itself into a question of per- 
sonal preference. If the owner wants a thick-topped and round- 
headed tree, heading-in is necessary. If he wants a free-growing 
open-centered tree, heading-in should be avoided, except, per- 
haps, while the tree is very young. 

A Kieffer pear tree is shown in diagram in Fig. 133. It is two 



ILM 



THF rfilSCiriKS 



yoni's sot. Whou plauto^i. it wns ;i mcro whip. Vhc t'li-st s(\'\son 
it soul out four vory stiXMij; latiMul braurhos. !us slu>\vu in the 
piotuiv. .\t tho oml of that season tl\o gnnvths wviv out haok 
half thoir loujxth. Tho soooiul soasoi\, throo to tivo vshootvS startod 
fi\Mn noar tho top of oaol\ shortouod hranoh. If a siuiilar troat- 
mont bo jxivou at tlio ond of tho soooiul yoar. still othor lattM-al 
i:;ro\vths will aviso tho f^>llo\vin.ii' yoar. and li\o troo will havi^ far 
too uiany branohos. Thiw kinds of tivatniont oau now bo 
siivon: tho oxistins; branohos may bo hoa^lotl-in as roprosontivl 
by tho two lonj; linos; son\o of tho branohos may Ih^ out away 
bodily as shown by tho sovoral short 
bat's: tho troatmont n\ay bo a oombina- 
tiou oi thoso two. Ono thinsi; is oloar: tho 
tiw now has too many branohos for its 
si/0, and somo of thom i,say half of tho 
sooondary onos^ should bo out away. 
Whothor any furthor hoadinij;-in shall bo 
givon, is a spooial tiuostion. If tho triv 
is makinii a i^rowth of ,> lotM or n\oro, 
hoadiug-in would probably bo advisablo, 
althoujih by no n\oans ossontial. 'Phis 
hoadiuii-in toi\ds to mako tho bram-hos 
thiok and stooky, thon^by onablinii thon\ 
to support tho fortlu'ominj:: orops of fruit. 
As tho troo ajiproaohivs maturity, hoad- 
ii\ji-in may bo loss froquont and U\^s 
sovoro. and it may ovontually ooaso. 

To ono who oontomplatos tho outtinjj;- 

baok of troos. it should bo said that ho.ad- 

inij-i'^ nooossit at OS miMV pruniusj in tho 

intorii>r of tho top. 'Phis is partioularly 

'.C5fc5|r*V Iruo of o.arly summor hoadiuji-iti, whioh 

i.s.s. iM.iirr.iiu to n>p- oft ou oausos uow latoral liunvtiis to bo- 

youuK troo. oouio SO nuuiorous as to bo vorv troubU^ 




HEADJNO-IN 121 

fiomr; CaH, for (•x!i.rt\\>h;, in Hurnrnor pnjninj;? of grapes) and t/j 
caiiw; much f;xtra labor at a vf;ry buHy w;a."/>ri. 

Thf; writer would practiw; hoa^Jing-in over-growing young 
fruit-trecjH of vfjry ntrc^ng-growing varieticH, for the puryK^H^; of 
inducing u. Htockier growth of the }>rane}if« and of promoting 
the early brandling of thf; main or .scaffold limbH. Ah the tree 
inceawjH in age, the hea/Jing-in should ^xjfciHH and less, and should 
g(!nr!rally cease, when bearing arrives, unU^;s perhaps wit}) peaches, 
I^lums and afuicots. If the mature tn;e grows too rapidly, the 
fuiKlamental corr(^*tive is to withhold tillage or nnanure. 

Another reason for heading-in is merely to keep the tree in 
shape, or to trim into some desired form. Although the writer's 
taste, in g(;neral, is counter to this, there is no arbitrary standard 
by whif:h t}ir; f>nr; pattern or the other is to be judged. Tlje 
writer tliirjks tfiat an opf;n-centered and natiiral-growing fruit- 
tree is g(;nerally preferable; tfj a cornpact-heax^iwl and sheared-in 
tre^;, but excf;llr;nt commf;rcial results, paHicularly in stone- 
fruits, an; offx;n secured unfjer tlif; latter method of tree-growing. 
The orchardist should deUjmriine his own purpose when he 
b(!gins to prune liis trees, and then carry out )iis plan syst^;mati- 
cally and consistently to tljc; (tnd. Aside from these; pury;osf3S, 
th(;r(; remain tfie ncicessary liea/Jing-in of dwarfs (page 176) 
and the heaejing-in ff;r produf;tif>n of fruit-buds (Section 15). 

10. A deep ohdruction just ahfwe a hud (rr lirnh teruls to j/roduce 
Hlromj lowjilvdirud yrwjAh in that part; an ohHtructian beUru) 
it temln to '[iroduce a thirkenirLg of ths part and a qtjdeHcerd 
date. (I'or d(;tails of the practices, see section 13.) 

The obstruf;tion Ijelow thr; bud tends to cut off the supply of 
root-water, upon wliicli rapid growth largely df;pends; but the 
deposition of elaborated mat<;rials from the leaves builds up 
tissue above the; constriction or dam. Since rapid wood growth 
is liindered b(;cauHe of tlic; obstruction to the; upward-moving 
8ap-wat(;r, the parts tend to thicken rather than to elongate. We 



122 THE PRINCIPLES 

are already prepared for these assertions from the study of 
girdling (Figs. 95, 96, 97, and 111). 

A complete obstruction amounts to a severing of the shoot or 
hcading-in; and we have already found (Section 9) that head- 
ing-in tends to develop strong growths from the lateral buds. 
The common methods of obstructhig the movements of sap are 
by girdling or rmging, notching, and bending or twisting the 
shoot. Girdling by the removal of bark, however, is such a 
complete obstruction as to starve the part below the girdle, and 
the statements which may be made concerning its effects do not 
always apply to notching and bending the shoot. (See discussion 
in Chapter VI.) 

It should be remembered that the upward movement of water 
takes place in the yoimg or sapwood, and a notch only through 
the bark does not directly affect this movement. The dowTi- 
ward or distributive movement of elaborated materials takes 
place in the inner bark, or bast, and a notch only through the 
bark is, therefore, able to check it. A notch through both the 
bark and sapwood cuts off both movements and is nearly 
equivalent, in this respect, to cutting off the shoot. 

11. Checking growth of vigorous non-productive plants, so long as 
the plant remains strong and healthy, induces fruitfubiess. 

This is a very old horticultural maxim; and although many 
tests seem to disprove it, the statement is undoubtedly true as 
a working hypothesis and we must understand and explain the 
exceptions. 

Very strong gro"wi:h is usually, or at least often, at the expense 
of fruit-bearing. Tilling and manuring may be carried so far as to 
make the plant over-vigorous and under-fruitful, although this 
danger is rare in practice with fruit-trees but is not unusual in 
other plants. Heavy pruning may have the same effect. Other 
conditions aside, deep notching of the twig above a bud tends 
to make the bud produce a long woody shoot; notching below 



CHECKING GROWTH 123 

the bud tends to make it develop a fruit-spur (Sections 10, 13). 
Hcading-in tends to start woody shoots from the buds near the 
cut. Girdling just through the bark (or ringing) tends to develop 
fruit-buds above the wound. If, however, the girdle is below the 
foliage (that is, on the stem or trunk), new shoots arising below 
the wound must grow at the expense of material stored in that 
part; and if such stored nutriment is small, shoots may not be 
able to start or to thrive. Girdling by cutting through the young 
wood tends to develop strong growth below the girdle and to 
starye and kill all the parts above it. 

In a word, a strong supply of root-sap tends to stimulate 
wood growth; a pronounced deposition of elaborated food tends 
to develop fruit-buds. 

If checking the growth tends toward fruitfulness, then we 
are to expect that the marked stimulation of shoot growth by 
means of heavy pruning will tend in the opposite direction ; and 
this is borne out in practice. Pickering asserts, from his studies 
at Wobum, that with apples the crops were diminished by 
excessive pruning, "for this must tend to force into growth buds 
which otherwise would have produced fruit." 

12. Fruit-hearing is determined more by the habitual performance 
and condition of the plant than by the kind or extent of 
pruning; it is associated with a quiescent or continuous 
rather than with a stimulated or unsettled state; and the 
habit is more amenable to treatment when the plant is young 
than when it is old. 

Plants of the same species vary greatly in fruit-bearing. Some 
of this variation is a matter of individuality. No two trees are 
alike in this respect any more than they are in form of top or 
length of life. Some of the difference is due to soil or other 
environment. It is natural, however, for plants to bear, and 
when they once come into bearing they should be maintained 
in that habit by continuous good care. With such plants, any 



124 THE PRISCIPLES 

treatment that greatly disturbs the oquilibriiini tends to break 
or upset the bearing habit. If, however, through negleet or 
poor management, plants have never acquired a bearing habit, 
the grower may experiment, hoping to find a \\ay to bring them 
into fruit. One type of experunent is to change the management 
of the land; another is to modify the food supply; another is to 
change the method of pmning; another is to apply remedies for 
insects and diseases. 

The principle under discussion is the most unportant one 
enunciated in this book, from the fact that it advises the fruit- 
grower to depend more on good, thoughtful, and consecutive 
management of his plants year by year than on any disconnected, 
spasmodic, or unusual treatments now and then. A good plan 
moderately and consistently worked out is better than a hundred 
spurts. 

Let us apply these reflections to the treatment of a neglected 
and unfruitful apple orchard. The general advice is to till, 
fertihze, prune, and spray; and this advice is good. The prun- 
ing, how'ever, has more effect in bringing the trees into shape and 
in correctmg the neglect of preceding years than in directly 
inducing fruit-bearing. A heavy pruning of such trees acts as a 
renewal (Sections 1 and 3). The orchard is renovated and rejuve- 
nated, and the grower may then begin and carry forward a 
consecutive treatment, which he should have begun when the 
trees were planted. After tw^o or three years, the trees begin to 
steady do^^^l, and fruit-bearmg should then begin; but fruit- 
bearmg camiot be maintained if the orchard is allowed to lapse 
into its former condition. 

We are now able to see that the common habit of priming the 
orchard heroically every two or three years and neglecting it 
in the meantime is one of the best means of keepmg the trees 
unbalanced and upset, and of inducing raw wood growth, and 
thereby preventing fruit-bearing. All etYorts to make plants 
bear amuiallv must fail unless consecutive good care is given 



CONTINUOUS CARE Vl^i 

year by year. Light pruning every year is probably more useful 
than tho .sarrifi aggn^gatfi pruning given only in occasional or 
even in alternate years. 

Over-lxiaring is itself a disturbance of equilibrium, and is 
almost necessarily followed by a rea^;tion of under-lxiaring. 
This corollary has such important Ixjaring on pra/;tice tliat it 
should receive careful attention. One extreme follows another, 
and the oftener thesf; extremes occur the greater Is the likelihood 
that they will become an unremediable or fixed habit of the 
plant. It is interesting to note that the habit of alternate bear- 
ing'is most pronounced in plants of long life, suggesting that 
the habit is largely, if not wholly, the result of the frequent 
occurrence of over-bearing while the plant was young. Apples 
and pears are particularly given to alternate bearing, plums and 
peaches less so, bush-fruits still less, and strawh>erries not at all. 
It is a question, therefore, whether any treatment can set some 
old orchards into repeated annual bearing; and, at all events, 
pruning is only one of the means of overcoming and correcting 
the habit (see Section 14j. 

Although it is an ancient principle in horticulture that check- 
ing growth may induce fniitfulness, it is only one means of 
inducing a Vjearing habit; and (to repeat) when this habit has 
once been secured, every effort should be exerted to maintain it. 
It does not follow, however, that trees of slow growth are neces- 
sarily most fruitful. The most fruitful orchards are usually 
those that have made strong growth from the }>eginning; but 
the bearing habit was early induced Vjy good tillage and good 
fcicding, and the extra growth enables it to bear the more fruit. 
The practice of checking growth, therefore, is for the most 
part a remedy for. ot?ier deficiencies. 

"Je weniger wir zu schneiden haben am Baum, desto gesunder 

bleih)t er und desto schoner entwickeln sich die Friichte" (The 

less we are obliged to cut a tree, the sounder it remains and the 

[finer its fruits develop), writes Karl Koopmann in "Elemen- 



120 THE PRI.WIPLES 

tarlohren aiis doiii Gobioto lios Bamnschnittv^," 1800. This 
soutonoo must not bo takou to moan that Koopmami would dis- 
I'ourago pniuhig. but tliat it is tl\o part of wisilom to resort to 
pruning as little as possible and yet reaeh the desired results. 

13. AU mean^ of obiitntctimj the movement of sop — os notehing, 
shredding, bending, tiristing, girdling — ore motters of 
special and loeal application, and are to be assix^ioted more 
icith modes of training and the practice of gardening than 
with pruning proptr. They are not cardinal nor normal 
practices: their success depends on the skill and experience 
of the particular gardener. 

This prmciple is the complement of Section 12. If the habit- 
ual perforn\anee of the plant — hidueed by consecutive rational 
tivatment — liet ermines its usefuhiess, then the treatnient of 
individual buds jmd spurs must be merely incidental and special 
matters. The fact is, that the advice hi respect to notching;, bend- 
ing, and the like, is born of the amateiu" and garden-culture 
fruit-growing of the Old World. Whether the authors were 
conscious of the fact or not, the older American pomologicjil 
writings are direct otYshoots of European small-area practices. 
The emphasis is placed first on varieties, and always on facts 
rather than on principles. In vegetable-gardening literature 
the same has been true, and it was not until Henderson WTOte 
his "Gai-dening for Profit" that the lai-ge-area and commercial 
American gardenmg found its voice: but even Hendei-son fol- 
lowed the detached and cyclopedic method of arrangement, 
which is bom of a desire for facts and ready reference rather 
than for great truths and principles. But the transcendent merit 
of Henderson's book — which marks an epoch in American 
horticultural hterature — is the fact that it caught the rising com- 
mercial spirit of the tune and threw otY the bonds of tradition. 

These remarks. I hope, will put the reader in the right atti- 
tude toward all these petty matters of pruning, as it will toward 



NOTCH INC AN I) HINGING Vll 

the common fault, of jjlafint? (;rnphaHiH firKt on varietie« and 
oih(!r JKolaUid, local, and pf;fwjnal fa/;tH, If a porn^jn muKt train 
liJK pear Ui'M or jjoaoh tn;(; to a wall or a trcllLs, thon ho miiHt 
yj<:rforce count hi« budn, force Hpurs to ari«c at HtaU'A intervabi, 
and Ik; familiar with thr; n;r)n<;mr;nlK of pindiinj?, rinj^inj^, and 
nolf;hin^. (^jrafXi-lrainin^ in njijf;}) confiJW;d Ixicauw; pf;rHonK do 
not. diHtin^uiKli that it involvoH two ht-Xn of ideaw — the pruning 
U) removf! HUfK-rfluous wood, and th(; training int/> wjme hcX 
form. 'J'hc niimlx'.r of budK U) leave on tlie cane depends more 
on the fiystem of training than on the principlcH of pruning. 

T^jtdiing into th<; wof>d above a bud U;iu\h to produce strong 
growtJj from tliat bud (page 121^. Xotcliing junt through the 
l;ark above a bud tends to weaken the bud, because the root- 
Haf> \H not Ktopp(;d and th(j elaboratxid .sap is checkwl. Notch- 
ing into the wood U;low a bud tends to pile up rancrva mattjrials 
at the bud and thereby U> induce fruit-bearing. Notching just 
through the bark below a bud tends to pile up tissue at the 
bud, but since the root-sap Is not cut off, tJie bud may us<; this 
tissue in rapid growth, and fruit-bearing may not \Hi inducwJ. 
In practice, these n^finements are likely tf; be undiscernible. 

CJirdling or ringing (prjucAACM discusw^d in C^hajjters VI and 
X) tends to develop fruit-buds above the girdle. Bending the 
shoot to a hfirizontal or deflexed position U-ndn t<j lessrm growth, 
perhaps because of its pfjsition but cliiefly becaus(i of tfie kink- 
ing or modification of the tissues at the Ixmd. 

Tint following extra/;ts from studies by Koopmann* give 
a clear conc(.'ption of the effects of notching: 

"Notche« an; rniui*; on Iwij^ of one year's growth or rnoro, U) infliienwj 
a fjarticular bud in varioiiH ways, or they are rna/Je below or above a twij; 
in order to influence the development of tJiis tvrig, or of a larger part of a 
tree. 

*Karl Kooprfiunn, "Klernentarlehren auH dern Gehiete des HauniHf;hnittM" 
in I^andwirthofiafUiche Jahrbiicher, xxv. (IH'.id), heft 4 u. 5, republiHhed as 
"<^irundl<;hren dcH Ob«t,t>aijrnw;hnitf<«." Kooprnann'H 8tudif« in pninirij? 
were commended by Htate and wxiety rnf;*Jal«. This memoir gives copiourt 
referenccB U) the German literature of pruning. 



128 THK i'Hi.\i'iri.h:s 

"Xotoh<\s »»» fho hark uiulor ••» bud an^ tH]uiv;vlont to oiu^thinl v>r oiu^ 
fourth jjirvllo. juul onn bo nitulo jvs jiinlU\«« aiv. 'V\w otTtvt of tho i>pornlioi^ 
in i\'Uisijv>i tho pixnluotion of fruit is oontimxl, in this oaso, to a singlo buti; 
«t loast a moiv oxtotidtxl intUionoo oi\ tho parts abovo it is hani ti> obs(>rvo, 
juul ptvKably dm^ i\ot oxist. as tho hindranoo to s,'»j>-t>\ovotnot\t is vory 
vsmall. auvi tho rvx^t is not i\ssontially ilrawn into partioipalion. If. Iiowovor. 
n»any suoh notolu\-< or partial giixilos aiv mado on a Iwij!: and folKnvin^; oaoh 
othor oUvsoly. as jvrhajvs in fl\o oaso of l\>llo\ving tht> natural spiral of tho 
bvul jHVsitions. tho otToot must bo n\on> and n»on> noarly that of a iH>tn- 
ploto ijirvilo, 

"A not oh abovo a bud into tho sai^-oarryinji woihI has a ovM\trary otToot. 
5U! Kti A om^thinl or ontM'ourth outting-baok. which roally is dono. If tho 
twijj was out off at tho sanio point, a larjn* nutt\bor of r.apidly-nnnvinjj 
WiKHly sluH^ts would bo oxpoottnl. p;»rtii'ularly if tho outtinui-b.-u'k woix* 
tlono in oldor wixvl. Tho dtvpor into tho sa{M'arryinjj; tissuos tho knifo 
advanc\^, tho n\on^ prtMunu\»H\l nuist bo tho nwilt. Tht^ orudo sap takon 
up by tho uhM and not diivotly i>f uso iji buiUlinii tissuo. oan do only tho 
work of tittiivjj for uso tho stoiwl tvsorvo nu\torials. I'or thoso nv^orvo 
niatorials, thus sot into sohition, thon^ is no i>thor outlot than that thoy 
bo worki\l up aiul ustni in a loaf-bud that h.ad ivtnaim^l donn.ant or in jv 
nowly fonning advontitious bud bolow tho not oh. Howovor. .as siH>n sis 
j:rv>wth h.as takoi\ plaiv. tho orgaix. whothor imgiiially woak or stnniji of 
oonstitution, is stimulattxl to tho iin\itost activity thnniuh tho onorgotio 
upwar\l-pushii\g n>ot-sap. anil tho rt\><ult of this is. by aututni\, a wihhI 
branoh of luxurious dovolopn\ont. 

"A pr\inounoi\l tiotoh in vory old woihI o.alls forth oithtM- a vory nmk 
twiji or is withovit otYoot. lt\ thoso oasos. it is ovidot\lly oausixl by tho !U>- 
sot\oo of a bvid or of a location for oiu\ If ut\towar\l conditions of nutrition 
an^ pn^ot\t. it n\ay passibly bo duo to a doftvtivo storaj^^ of tho nooossju-y 
rt^orvo niatorials. This latter svi]ipiviition it niijiht bo dillicult to pnn'o. 

"Tho fnv*injt of buds oan call forth similar rv\><ults im\ tho youn|ji>st 
wo«.xi as thivso just dt\f!oribtHl for old wixxl. on which thotv aiv. in gononil, 
no buds ablo to jinnv. (.'►it many plants tho bvids sutTor siHMior th:u\ the 
oainbivnn Layer of the whhmI. This is loss noticeable on orchaixl woihI than 
on many natural wihhIs; oi\ tho latter, in spite of the stixMigest tlow of s;ip, 
the sprvnits will bo missixl vu\dor such circiunstances. 

■■ The notchings spokot\ of ii\ tho fon^goinji p.arajiraphs have gn^at 
importance to tho fruit -gnnvor. partly in tho shapii\g of the tiw .and psirtly 
in tho priHluction of a balaiuv in the bnvt\chii\g (,or clothiiAg"* of tho so.atTold 
litnl^s of dwarf oroh.aril-tnH^. Uut tho notches abovo a bud into tho bju-k, 
:u\d under a bud into tiio wixxl. c:uu\ot attJiiu !U\y imiK^rtiUiw in practice. 



NOTCIIINa \2'.) 

"I'roffi w}i!it, Im known nhout, fix; circulation and rrfffM cif the «ap, it 
limy follow with w»rn'! lUfin-^- of f;l«;arfi<«« thai a riot/;}i above a bufj, which 
r<iii(>v<-H hut (Ik-, bark an'] bjtHt laycrx, fnij«t t^;n'J t/> cnf«^;bl»: and pn;v*;nt 
Kjjroutinj^, bccauw; thf ufjwanJ-rnovinK Map in not HU)f)]H'A at the bud, and 
the prfxluct^ of JiHHirnilation, whieli are a Hurj^luH from the leav';H, are with- 
h'ld from the bud ;t« lon^ ;i« t)i<; wound in o[*en. Many practical exfXTi- 
rnentx with thiH nr>tch K.ave, h'^wever, chiefly two n«ultj<. In rnr^t caw* 
no marked clianj^f; rxiuld be rJet^;rmin»^J on the bud. It remained dormant, 
;ind thereby puHW/l naturally f/O it>i d«s*truction, whether more rapidly than 
other bijrJH nf>t artifir;ially influenwjfl we have ho far not \x'j:n able U> 
<i<-U:nriin<t. In many r/fJier caH<«, a Hprout did develop which wniifimian 
Krew^int/j a lon>< HfK>ot. ThiH a[;j>eararic<; ma/le the rnatt/T very unclear, 
until it wan jkA'umA tliat in Huch fia-^-H the cut h>fJ not be«;n rna/ie with the 
care which \n rf;fjiiire,fj. The bark anrj b;tHt layer-i ha/J \><-^:u removal, but 
at the, Hame tim<; the yf<un(<er layerH of w^^yJ h;i/J been injur^J, an 'A\)\x:ixrcA 
very prominr;ntly in lonj^itudinal HttciioriH. 

"'I'hf.ri: yi-X rernainH the notchinj^ infxj the wofxJ below a biid, and thin, 
a^ain, rnuHt be lf>oke/l upon hh a partial cutting-ba^;k, Throii^li Huch a 
notch thr; bud iH cut ofT from the; rf>*jt, and the cambium fluidH are pilwl 
iif> at the bud, which \h, therefore, ixx) abun'iantly Hupplif;^] with r<S4<;rve 
;fiat;<:nalK without being itwilf cauw^l Uy n^row. The n^ult in Himilar f/i the 
notcliiiiK int/j the bark, only the woiinrl in larger, and tlif:refore tak'« a 
longer time tx< heal. The deeper tlie Haf>-carrying wof^fJ-layern are cut, the 
IcHH iH the tendency of the bud U> develof> a Hh'Xjt, and it UHually remains aH 
a well-<le-velf>(jr;<J fruit/-bud without any clearly obwrrvable lengthf;ning f.»f 
tlir; axiH, an though Hlr!«;ping; or it df;velojw a leaf-rfjw;ttfj, in order t/j bear 
fruit the next year. A notch in younger wfxxj, w> execuUjrJ betwfjf;n two 
btidH that both an; equally influenf;*d, n«ulf>4 alwayH in a wrxxJy Hhrx>t 
from the lower one, and a fniit/-bud, or a very Hrnall fnjitz-spur t/;rminaf/^i 
by a fruif/-bud, from thr; uf>f>er one; the w^xxiy Hlif^ot in H<;lf-active, the fruit/- 
bud H«;erningly a panxHitic creation. Ah the notch int/i the bark under the 
budH, with reference U) the f^rrxluction of fruit/-«purH, haH gf;nerally the name 
«;fTr;ct aH a not^;h intx< the wofxJ, the latt/;r i.s HUfX;rfluouH. A nlig^it damage 
1x> th(; outer wfxxl ("HfilintHchicht;, however, dfx;H not in any way len.H^^'n 
the (;\\x:<',\ji-x\ n«ult. 

"Whih; in thf; foregoing we have kf;pt in view the efTf;ct of notch's* on 
Hingje biidH, an exhauntive treatment of the Bubject/ requin* a «hort not'uu; 
of the influence which Hirnilar notchf« exert, on alrearJy exinting branch<;H. 
i'ark-notchf;« above or below a branch bearing Hpurs a^;t in a very Hiight 
degr';*; on the branch in qu'^tion; a c/)iri])\i:U: girdle around the base of the 
branch actH, of courHC, aH an ordinary girdle. A quart<;r girdle on the 
I 



130 THE PRiyCJFLES 

under side oaiisos the Siime effect, but in a sanall decroo, for the stopping 
of the canibiiun tlxiids is tUinost complet-ely obviatixl by the possibiHty of 
their nwving off to one side. An xipper cut out of the bark can also have 
but the same small intluentv on the spui-s of the braneh vnuier experiment, 
as the out attains the importanoe of a quarter ginile to the spui-s while the 
bnmeh itst^ll" eaw in no way be intluonetxl by this bark-not ehing, because 
the downwanl-tlowing oatnbiuni tUiid tn^n the spurs Ciin, of course, be held 
back, but oaimot exert an intlueitce on the branching below the.ginile. 
In giMtenU pnactioe, thon^forc, such bark ittjuries have no inijx^rtancc 
whatever. 

"It is otherwise with vigorous notches in the wood below or above a 
branch. By means of these notches the root-sjip is either cut off or led to 
these bntitches. The moiv vigv^rous the notching on a spiu- above one of 
its brancht^. the more the latter nveive of the crude sj\p, and the leaves 
arc the mon^ stimulattxl to activity: the leaves become Larger, the inter- 
no<.les of greater length, the mnnber of shoots and leaves is increaseil, and 
an incn^ast\l pnxluction of wv.hx1 is tlie result. Diivctly op|x>site is the eiTect 
of a notch mider a brattch or twig. .\ large portion of the supply destintxl 
for the assimilating orgtuts is cut otY from the branch, and the diminished 
production of woo<i is a natursil consequence. The Siip hindercil in its eoiU"se 
is carried to other bnvncheis in increase*.! quantitit\s, and particularly to 
one which may be notcheil above and thert^foiv jvlready favored, if such 
sliould hapj^en to be in the immeiliate neighborhooti of the first (of the 
one notchtni under the t\\'ig\ 

"W'itlt reference to the technical execution of the notches, it may be said 
that they aiv made in the bark with a knife in simple notch form, or like 
a half-moon. As to the notch in the wt.xxl, the simple notch is useil, also a 
gablt^like cut. The latter seems to have a slightly iitcrcastxl efltrt. In place 
of the notches, in wockI of a greater age than six years, caivfuUy made 
simple saw-cuts, perpendicular to the axis of the spur, or nxif-like in form 
above or below the organs to be influenced — aggregations of buds, twigs, 
or branches — are more desirable, as notches generally cause too large 
wounds if they are to enter the wocxl to a suthcient depth. A saw-cut 
made at the proper time in the early spring heals outwanlly in six to 
eight weeks, although it causes in the woo<.l a not insignificant wound, 
and can cause lux-rotio appearances on sickly trees. As, however, the 
never-heahng wood womuis aiv pivtecteil from injurious infiuences from 
without by walhng over, jx^nnanent ill results necii itot be feanxl. ^^'e:lk or 
sickly trees and stone-fruits should be spared from such trt\\tment as 
much as jxxssible, as every dise:\se-pro<.iucing organism is given a new 
ground to occupy by such saw-cuts." 



ruiNNiNd THE i'i/jwfmh ASh mi: I 'I l.'il 

1 4 . I^runiny rn/iy he m/uLe a yrmmH of thinning the fruit f/r fUmjc^rn; 

awl Ih^rHi/ij it rn/iy iwlirefiUy c/rdrii/uih Uj th/i c/rrdrol of th/i 

hcji'rlwj yi'/ir of Uuh, '[jl/irda. 
Fruit is thinned hxjth by picicing it off and by removing the 
bufiis that are to fxiar it. The' removing of the buds rnay be 
iu;<^)m\)V\H]L<'ji exj^K^iitioufily by pruning. This pruning rrmy \)e 
the heafJing-back of 8hootH upon which fruit-bu^J>> are bf>me, or 
the removal of fruit-BpurH. 1'he opf;rat^^r munt first know the 
mode in wliichi the plant y>ears its flower-bu<lH. Heariing-back 
of i^i annual growth thirifi jx^achefj, quinces, raspberries, black- 
berries, \j\ii/:k currants, and, to a Iohh extent, perhaps red 
and whit/; currants, and i^m-iHiH — all those plants that dfivalop 
blosKf^m-buds on the wood of the laf>t season, or that liave a 
cot^.-rminal liabit of fruit-lxiaring. The great disa^lvantage of 
thinning fruit by means of pruning is the impossibility of 
knowing how many buds or young fruits may subsequently be 
destroyf^ by cold, insfjcts, or dmatJHefi. Yet the practice should 
Ui more general, for in most cas^js of too heavy prospective fruit- 
Ixiaring the danger can be partially averted by a cheaper means 
than liand-pickjng the young fruits. With tf^nder fniits and in 
cold climates this thinning by pruning should be delayed 
until danger of winter-injury is thought to be past. 

The second part of the proposition Is very important^ — the 
fact that the energies of the tree can l>e conserved by thinning 
the fruit. Thiis is really a corollary of Section 12. It is necessary 
to discover just how this con^/irvation comes about. We have 
obBf:!rved (see Figs. 14, 15 and 10; that there is commonly an 
alternation in fruit-bearing on the individual spur because the 
demands made by the fruit are so great that a fniit-bud does not 
develop the same year. In the year of fruit-bearing, therefore, 
a small leaf-bud develops to continue the spur the following 
year; and in this follo^v'ing and barren year, a fruit-bud is 
developed for bearing the succeeding year. Alternate years' 
fruit-bearing, therefore, is apparently largely a question of food- 



ia2 



THK rKlXrU'l.h'S 



supply. If. then, wo :uo u> atttMupt to mako [\\c iwc \x\\v 
every year, we must sui^ply nunv l\HHl-n\ateii;»ls to the tree or 
ivuiove part of {\\c fruit. 

Hemovu\u; the fruit atYeots el\ietly the spur on which it is 
borne; in large fruits, as a rule, one spin-, or one braui'h i>f a 
spur, niatinvs one fruit: therefore, it n\ust follow that if thin- 
i\iug the fruit imluet^s ani\ual bearing in si»nie spur-fruits, it 
must be m».>stly beeause i>ue spur is made to be.ar one year anii 
another spur to bear another year. Th.at is, there n\.ay be an 
alternation in fruit-bearing on the spur, tlie same as before, 
but the bearing year of part of the spurs juobably may be 
ehanged by means of the thinning. It wouUl seem, therefore, 
th.at the tiiinning will have most etYeet in imiui'ing annu;»l bear- 
ing when it renunes all the fruits from certain spurs, thereby 
allowing these spin's to bear in the alternate 
yeai-s. Rut it is probable that no anunmt of 
thinning oan proihuv an annual-bearing habit 
imless the plants iveeive other necessary consecu- 
tive good care. It is a question whether it would 
not be advisable to endeavor to change the 
bearing year of entiiv plants, theivby allowing 
part of the trees in an oivhard to bear one year 
and the other trees to bear the following year. 
134. The bearing year of fruit-tnvs can sometimes 

n^^viitiS^Iin'Vho be changed by i-emoving the ci*op veiy early in 
rNamnu'^ii)'"" ^^^^' reason: but the tiws tend to revert to their 
accustonunl habit, and it is pivbable that this 
revei-sion is the more mpid and the more complete the older 
the tree (v)age lit") and the more indifferent the giMieral treat- 
ment of it. In fruits which aiv mo^^t systematically thinned 
(either by picking the fruit or by means of the accustomiHi 
methods of priming), annual bearing is the most prenounctHl or 
at least the most to be expected. The grape and peach are 
exjunples. Yet, as we have already saiil, the reavsons for alter- 




A I/I l:li'. A 7 I: 1:1'. A III Sd 



1 '/'/ 

It Hi 



\ 



>h<r friiif-Kpur, 

lU-nfinfi, in rnjrul fiu? alU^rusiiunt in fniUAftmntii^ in ih<; Kj^urn 
in Fi^H. 14 an^J 15, U^ m c/nmUU^ what niin^ti Itapfum if iiui 
fruii iv<;r<; n^ttiovf-A w\n^it very Krnal). Fij(, I'M ^frorii \\U;) 
Krilh thf; Ht/;ry. In iWm caw;, ih<; v*;ry young fniit wa« 
n^novcA, and two \>\()mi!fu-\f\u\n Uava t\itw(i\(f\xA \\u; Harn'i 
«<;a><^/n. In Oiij-, Kpur lh<; Urarinjr y<;ar I« chang^^l. VV<5 
alw> foijfj'J that fix- \Mh.niti£, y-'rir wiur', one/-, (:\m.uiL(A in 
tlirr rxjar Kf;ijr xhown in Iij<. 20. However, thi» change; 
in fT)'; \)t-M.r\u\L, year d^^^^r', not 
ftlwayn follow the n-MUiwA of 
1 hr; HowerH or young fruifx. 

The ffi^rt that work i.H frx- 
\X'.x\(\fA in the U;aring ^^ 
fruif rnay U; undernf/xxi if 
one exaniin'#, th<; KwellingH 
on the KfiurH or fruif/-U;aring 
twigH of fM;arH. In Fig. 135, 
t.h<t«<; HwellingH are w/jn at 
a a. The wearn at the r;nrj« 
nhr/w tliat fniit waH Ix^rrw; 
there. In the tranwfer of UxA 
to thi« point and thr; arn«f. 
of longitudinal growth, af>- 
]HiV('U\.\y a building up of 
mechanical tiKwue ha« taken plac*;; and it i« proIj>abl/; that tfie 
U;ng growth frf tlu; lat<;ral hrancMf^ (^ which, in thi« ca«c, ^x^r 
only leaf-hudnj hax U'/;n nia/le iXfUHWAc, by the r;xr;/;«« r/f nutri- 
nirrnt, Tlie readier rnuftt not (umUmud thr«/; KwellingH with the 
thickening due tf> mere arrf«t of 1/ingitudinal growth, a« Hhowii 
in Ji, Fig. 02. 

Cliernical U^ii nhow tliat the Kwelling« in Fig. Uio wrjrc not 
.nU^rage rt^-.rvoirn of \)\ixn\A(xA, althougli thi« c^mdwiitm rnay 







lot nit: rKJ.\civu:s 

-ot apply to all cjv:«t\:5 in view of the rts^vrtions of other a\ithiM"s. 

I1\e staivh-like content of the swellinp*. in winter, was less than 
that of Yi^ij\>i\nis normal shoots of the vS'une a^e. In noimal 
twiji-s. the moist niv was fovu\il to Iv 50.1M jnn' ^vnt; in the swel- 
hnji-s. oO.'it) iHM- ivnt. In both siunples, the contents (a^s starcli, 
dextrine, jvntOiSims. and the like'* weiv calculateil as ivduciui;- 
sujinr. In normal whiter twig's, the ixHlucinjj; sugar was 'JS per 
ivnt; in the vSwelUngs. at the siue.e date, it was 27.1 per cent. 
C'alculattHi to fivsh sul^stamv, the percentagi^s weiv 18.74 for 
the twigs and n.iH> for the swellings. ThiN^e tt^ts still further 
suggvst that tht^o swelling's aiv mecluanical tissue, n\suhing fixnn 
the stniin of fruit-lvaring, and that thev aiv ni^t to be lookinl 
upon as conducing to sul^seiiuent fruit fulness of the pljuit. 

lo. Cairful pinching or sh&rt heading^in of non-pnxiuctit'f ahm^ts 
or plants of htanng age thtoreticaUy temia toicani fntit^ 
fulnesii by checking exuberant groicth and by enamroging 
the formation of ifhoii lateral gnncths. 

In StH'tiwi 9 we have discusstnl etYects of headh\g-in on the 
ganvth of wixxl-length and the form of the top of the plant. 
We aiv now inquiring what etYtvt it has in inducing fruit-lnvn^ 
ing. So far as headvng-in tends to check wvH>dy grvnvtl\ iti trtvs 
or plants imder norn\al conviitions of gixnvth and tiv.atment, it 
conduces to the formation of fruit-buds: but very l\eavy heatl- 
h\g-back an\ounts to a heavy prvn\ing and it n»ay, theivfiMv, 
conduce to the very opposite of fruit pixnluction. The heading- 
in of young and rapidly givwing titvs usually ivsults in still 
givater non-pi\xluctive wixxl. Theivfoiv, theiv can be no specific 
staten\ents as to how nuich or how fiw^uent the heading-in 
sliall Iv to induce productiveness. Every thit\g depends on the 
vigor and agt^ of the tnv. extent of cutting, and (UhtM- local 
conditions, timelmess. and particularly on the skill of the 
pruner. In tlie traiiuxl tnvs of Enropeim and shniliu- planta- 
tions. he;iduig-ui may give nioiv dependable ivsults. 



but k Wj.ti«l i/r KfHmf^, ■ -■• '-';t^>«:j#' 



/ k^^ili^ 'atff.. '». V> '^'^ifx^ f .' 



-'-#■, - ' 



'i7>: Va^ivr '/ 



k-'/fd*- r 









»^. it fy. '■-»- tkjft fniit ki a laitnil^ >■. if tbe 






)*'•« 



136 THE PRINCIPLES 

the lifetime of the tree may be a question, but, at all events, it 
may conform the tree to the climate, to the methods of tilling 
and harvesting, the distance apart of planting, and to the gen- 
eral conception of the section as to what a fruit-tree should be 
like. W. L. Howard, of the University of Cahfomia, writes as 
follows on this subject: ''In the great mterior valley section of 
California, a region some 500 miles long by 50 to 75 miles wide, 
together with the adjacent Sierra and Coast Range foothills, 
where the bulk of the deciduous fruits of the state are grown, it 
is customary to prune all trees except almonds and walnuts 
very heavily in late winter. With peach, apricot, and plum trees, 
all of the new growth, except stubs 6 to 12 inches long, is cut 
away. This means the annual removal of 2 to 4 or 5 feet of 
practically all the new branches. While these trees m the main 
are shaped so that the heads are open, the early spring growth is 
so rapid that the new branches quickly shade the main branches 
of the interior so that they are not injured by the hot sun. In 
this region there is little or no rain between April and Novem- 
ber, and in summer the temperature may range for days or 
even weeks, above 100° F. This kind of pruning would not be 
possible without great danger of injury to the trees from sun- 
burn, unless the soil were very deep and moist, so that the trees 
make a rapid gro'wih early in the season and continue in a 
highly vigorous condition until late autumn." 

16. The season in which pruning is performed has some influence 
on fruit-hearing, other things being the same, for winter prun- 
inglends to produce wood-length, whereas summer priming 
does not. Summer pruning for fruit is a special practice. 

Plants cut in midsummer, or later in the growing season, 
seem to have the power to adjust themselves to the new con- 
ditions the same season (page 118); the effect of the pruning 
seems to be very largely taken up before spring. Plants pruned 
in winter, or any time in the dormant period, expend their 



SUMMER PRUNING 137 

redundant energy at once in growth on the return of the grow- 
ing season. Aside from all this, the heavy removal of leaves 
in summer reduces the working or elaborating surface, and 
thereby tends more in the direction of starving or weakening 
the plant than in feeding or strengthening it. Watersprouts are 
less frequent following summer pruning than winter pruning 
(page 118). 

Summer pruning is of two kinds or purposes — (1) to thin the 
plant of too much growth, and (2) to induce some desired defi- 
nite^result, as increased fruit-bearing. Confusion of ideas may 
result if these two objects or practices are not kept in mind. 

These remarks are necessarily very general, and the con- 
dition of the plant and extent of cutting may be expected to 
obscure results which might be expected to transpire in repre- 
sentative cases. If the pruning is such as to check wood-growth 
without perceptibly weakening the plant, fruit-bearing is 
generally promoted; and herein lies the value of summer 
pinching of strong or leading shoots. In respect to the proper 
time for pinching, Sorauer remarks: "The greatest success will 
attend the process if the pinching takes place just at the period 
when the buds have still sufficient time to swell up and become 
stored with food material, but when the supply of water begins 
to diminish, so that the upper buds do not grow out into long 
laterals. ... To prevent disappointments, we state emphat- 
ically — as the practice is very common — that no fixed rule can 
be laid down for the commencement of summer pruning. Trees 
may even be pinched to death. The favorable time for this 
operation depends on the climate, the soil, the variety, and even 
upon the individual characteristics of the plant." 

The reader should know that the effect of this pinching 
depends very much on the general habit and vigor of the plant, 
and that it is difficult to predict results unless the particular 
plant has been under training for some time (and preferably 
from the time it was planted). The best results in pinching the 



138 THE PRIXCIPLES 

tips of shoots arc seouroil whon plants are trained to definite 
forms, as on walls, cordons, in glass-houses, or in arbitrary 
pyramids or other geometrical tigures. The practice, there- 
fore, is of little use in the commercial fmit-grow'uig of this 
country. 

The operator must not expect fruit-buds to form in the same 
year in which pinching or heading-back is performed, although 
such immediate results are sometimes secured. If heading-in 
takes place before active growth has ceased, mischievous lateral 
growths may be expected (Section 9) ; if tifter the leaves have 
ceased to be active, little if any results may be anticipated. 
Theoretically, the proper time is just as growth begins to cease, 
which, in the North, is in early summer. The shoot in Fig. 13 
(Stark apple) was cut back in winter, and the following season 
the fruit-bud a was formed. This was a comparatively weak 
shoot on the lower part of the tree. Had it been a strong tenninal 
twig, the bud a would probably have produced a long shoot. 
The injury to the shoot 3 ui Fig. G2 (at e) occurred about mid- 
summer. The two lateral buds received an extra food-supply 
and gave rise to late-season branchlets. The parts became 
greatly thickened, but only Iciif-buds formed. 

It is probably correct to say that headmg-in and pinching 
exert more marked effects in inducing fruit-bearing in subse- 
quent >ears and in proportion to the pei^sistency with which 
they are practised, than in the very year of the operation ; and 
an>' good result depends on the judgment and skill of the 
operator. 

The results of experiments with summer pruning are ver>' 
uiconclusive. Inasmuch as it is practically impossible to find 
closely comparable conditions in any two sets of tests made in 
different years and different places, much study of the subject 
is demanded before conclusions can be dra\\ii; and in particular 
nuist the interpretation of !>mall <^lisconuectetl tests be made 
with caution, in view of the affirmative experience of gardenei*s. 



HUMMKIi PRUNING 139 

One experimr'nter writefi that his experiments indicate* clearly 
that the witting of friiit-budK may be very materially influenced 
by special pruning practices. "Ordinarily \a,Ut wintfir or spring 
pruning w*ems U) stimulate wood-growth at the expemi^i of 
fruit-bud fonnation. Summer pruning HoemH to stimulate; the 
fonriation of fruit-buds. Rfxjt-pnining at the time the leavf^ 
are fully dev(;lo7>ed gave a very decided increase in the n\nn\xtr 
of fruit-buflw; also girdling and stripping without top-pruning 
se(;m(jd to give a mark(;d increawi in fruit^bufls." ()n the other 
hand, Pickering, at Wobum (England), scicured unsatisfactory 
results, and w;es "nothing at pres<;nt t<j justify us in recommend- 
ing summer pruning in general for apple tresis, thougli it may l^je 
afJopted without sf;nsible detriment to the trees." He thinks, 
however, that it is "quit^i possible that summer pinching or 
pruning may, under certain circumstances, lea^i to g(xA results, 
if the check given thereby t^j th(i tniti is just sufficient to con- 
vert growth-buds into fruit-buds." ""I'he tests of Batchelor and 
Goodspeed, in Utah (Bulletin No. 14()j, resultf;d in hjss fruit 
from summer-pruned than from winter-pruned apple trees; 
in their young orchard of Jonathian and Gano, under irrigation, 
summer pruning reduced the an;a of fruit-lxjaring wcxxi, the 
vitality of the trw-, and the productivity. 

In California, according Uj Howard, apricot-growers in many 
districts do wjnsiderable pruning of their bearing trees in early 
August. In some cases, they cut back the new growth severely 
shortly after the crop is harvested. If this work is performed 
much before August, the trees are stimulated mUj a very vigorous 
new growth. Where dr>'-farming methods of cultivation are 
practisfjd, this does not seem to result in visible injury to the 
trees. However, if the orchard is irrigat<;d aftf^r a midsummer 
pruning, the trees may be badly injured from a trouble popu- 
larly known as "scjur sap." There is much interest at pres^'nt 
in California in summer pruning, and experiments are under 
way. 



140 I'Hh: t'HiSi'U'i.h'S 

Tho ivsult of pini'hiiij; or dipping io imhuv iirontor fruit- 
boarinix is i-onditioninl on its timidly porformain'o. It is osson- 
ti.'iUy ;i sunnnor opor:\tion. ami usually a small amount of 
Avootl is ivmovod. Tho skilled opiaatm', with his plants woll 
in hand, loarns by oxporiouiv tho propor timo and tho propor 
amount. I'ndor usual gross oroh.ard oomlitions. tho oporator 
can hanlly know oxaotly tho right timo for tho phiohing or 
hoading-in so th;a ho may soouro roally useful ivsults; and in 
tho prosont stato of our knowUnigo, no one oaii dotormine 
it for him. 

Smnmor pruning for fruit-boaring, thoivfoiv, pinohing-in, 
notching, and such liko opiM-ations. aro intonsivo practioos to bo 
applitxl undor known conditions an^l to plants undor oontn>l, 
and thoir suoooss doponds on tho skill and applii-ation of tho 
particular gardener or pnn\er. who ha^ learned by experieneo 
^Yhat results he may expo^'t. 

17. The effect of pninitig, as uvW n.s the nea'ssity of it, lieiiemis 
greatly on locality and climate. 

Not only dix^s the vigor of plants ditTer wideh- in dilYeivnt 
places, but theiv are local dat^gers to be avoided. In the hot and 
dry interior regions, sun-scalding often follow^! very heavy 
pruning, and theiv has tluis arisen a feeling that tives sliould 
not bo pruned on the Plains, and the heads should bo 
sttirteil low. It is undoubttHlly true that in those ivgions out- 
door plai\ts need less pruning than in humid climates, but 
tivos which luvd to be so heavily prumxl that they aiv injmvd 
by sun-^cald jvre usually tliose that have been neglected in the 
beginning. 

The reader may tind entertaining conhrmativn\ oi the modi- 
fying inthiences of locality and climate b> reading tho advice 
on prmihig as given by men in ditYcrent places across the con- 
tinent. 



7///; CONCLUHJON 141 

18. 7'A« hf/din/j of Umjc vAmrulH in injliutrvrj'A chif,fly fry Ih/i html 

of fjl/int, th/i fjf'/n/'/rai vi/jf/r of th/i '[tl/ird, th/^ir ponti/m ira th/i 

'pUint, iM ierL{/ih of Ih/i dump, ari/i Ih/i ch/ira/i^r — fift to 

Hm/jothri£HH f/r rwj/jhn/;HH — of ttie Hurfarji; oUunr fa/itrrn ore 

the h/'/iUhfutriJiHH of Uhc, v'^ood, a/n/i Itm Hc/mm in vAich Hue 

cat in nuul/i. 

Thititti qucHtirmw have Vxj*ni (^mHvUtrcA in retail in CJiaptcr 

III. Thwjrotically, t,h(; U^ty time to make tFio cut, no far an 

h'ulinj? iH concMrucA, i« in the early part of the Rowing i¥'/<m)n, 

for ti<e healinj^ procjtm then U;girLS without delay; but other 

far-tors ftx^^rt mucli j^reat^jr infjuenw than the rrw;re wtimm. of 

futtinj^ '^pafre 74j. Wound-; on pomrj-fnjitH ''applew and pearn; 

heal rrif^n; rea/iily than thf/^r; of equal nize on B^jme of the Htonr^ 

fruitH. Thow; fm the cr^mmon Hhade- and thnlyar-iraaH fexc^.'pt 

pineH and nprurx's) iiHually heal very quickly. 

1 0. J)reHSflri/jH (h) rvoi fi/ixlen th£. h^JiUruj of vxmri/lH, t/ul Uvc/y alU/w 
the h/ifdi/ng to jrrogreHH unch/xkefl heaium thjey m/iy prreverd 
dine/me; a, good, dreHHin/j, thertcff/re, in f/nji IhM in Offdineptie 
and durahle, th/d ojff/rdn rrveeh/inixM j/rotedi/m, o,rui 
doen not itself injure the tiasu^H. 
TTie various que«tion.s involved in thlo statement have been 
w^mewhat fully di.«cuKs^'/J in Chapters III and IV, in which it 
was cjmcAiKUA that whitf^leari paint, renewf^i as needed, Is per- 
haps the Ixjst single dressing or prr^^rvative for c^jrnrnon woo^l 
wounds in fruit-tref^, and rx>al-tar, or for daup wood woun^ls 
(tr('/jHf)Ui followfid by coal-tar, for shade- and forest-trf^is. 

20. 71ie bed pruning is that which renuUn frma a djejinile 'fmrpom 
(ft pl/m, o.ri/1 v;h:i/:h in ffmri/)/-A f/a a rj/ay.id^ro.ii(m of fun/hi- 
rnenUd '[/rirvcipleH arul a mrefal Hlv/ly of oil th/'. loryji cjyn^ 
ditu/rt^; and speci/d pruning trexdments dem/jrwA to pro- 
rn/jte fruif^hefjrin/) ore of nef/rrt/lory irapf/rton/^. to the ehmr/i 
of vorielieH, in1,er-p(AiinMi(m, or A the cjmmoitive (jood wre 
of the plant. 



pAliT U 
TilK INCIDENTALS 



CHAPTER VI 

SPECIFIC ADVICE 

Having now travcrwi^l the funriarrujntal problf;mfi involved 
in ihf; pruning of plaritn, wf; may giva att/;nlion U) varioiiK details 
of j>iw/;ticf;, 'l'h(;.s<; detail.s are larj^ely pern^jnal opinionK, and 
are, tlierefore, of ritnincUid application; for priu^i'mt muKt vary 
with every pernon and every eonditioninj^ iiuttor. 

THIS, FOKM ()¥ UJK TOP 

'J'he fonn of the top Is largely a matter of pers^jnal preference; 
hut there are argumoTitH in favor of variouK patt^^niw. It in not 
the province of thiw hook to connider th(^; arj^iment.s, for they 
are not primarily quewtioriij of pruning. In time we hiiall prol^>- 
ahly det<;rminrj whether there are forms or shap^js of fruit-trrxjH 
West a^lapt^^] U) maximum yields. Ah yet we do not clearly 
kriow wfiat Uj axjx-j-A from KyKte.mH of Hhaping, Ixicaum we have 
not had careful comparable experiments on a Hufficient scale, 
and therr; are a^ivocatijH of the low head and higli head, the 
of^en hf;a^J and do.se hea^l, the ovoid head and the flattened 
\KiiuL We may find tliat the form of the head is related Uj the 
fjf-rffjrmance of the plant and to economical management of the 
[plantation. 

The mental choicf; has freest scope in ornamental plants, for 
qu(!stionH of profit-and-loHH enter very little into the problem. 
As a question of art, it should Ix; said that the natural habit of 
the fjlant is far lx;ttf;r than an artificial or geometrical habit, 
unless, of course;, the plants are part of a formal df^;ign. This Is 
both because; of tlie great<jr intrinsic beauty of a free-growing 



146 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



tree or shrub, and because the plant is less unportant for its 

own sake than for the part it contributes to the general foliage- 
mass of the place. (See pages 214 to 
216.) 

The satisfaction derived from a formal 
bush resides in the perfectness of its 
shape. As soon as it becomes ragged, it 
is unkempt, and is neither formal nor 
free. Trees and shrubs which are 
trimmed into foniial shape should be 
sheared several times in the growing 
season, not in winter alone. Fig. 136 
illustrates the point. The bush was 
sheared in winter. The operator wanted 
a flat-topped and thick-headed speci- 
men; but he had such a specimen only 
in winter, for the bush began to regain 

itself with the first growth of spring. 

In this case (Fig. 136), therefore, the strong new growth is a 

blemish, because the operator did not want it (although it 

should be said that he 




136. 



The winter-sheared 
bush. 



took the very best 
means to secure more 
of it by pruning heav- 
ily in winter). In a 
fruit-tree, however, a 
similar growth might 
not be a blemish, be- 
cause the object of 



heading-back in this ^^^-^"^ '~ 







, 1 137. Headed-in plum trees. May. 

case may not be so 

much to produce a definite form of tree, as to keep the plant 
within bounds, and perhaps to modify the fruit-bearing habit. 
Fig. 137 shows headed-in plum trees as they look when first 



HIGH HEADS AND LOW HEADS 



147 



leaved out. Fig. 138 shows the appearance m autumn, after the 
season's growth has taken place. These pictures are made from 
selected and typical trees, as grown by a successful plum- 
grower. From one-third to two-thirds of the annual growth is 
sheared off by him every winter. 

In distinction from these plum trees, compare Fig. 139. 
This picture is made from a typical tree as grown by a plum- 







138. Headed-in plum tree. 
September. 




139. Free-growing plum tree. 



grower who does not head-in his trees. The trees bear well in 
either case. 

The relative merits of high heads or low heads for fruit-trees 
are always in dispute. Two factors are chiefly concerned in 
these differences — the question of ease of cultivation, and the 
question of injury to the trunk by sun-scald. It is the commonest 
opinion that short trunks necessarily make low heads, yet any- 
one who can see a tree should know that the number of trunks 
does not determine the direction of the leaf -bearing limbs. The 
tree in Fig. 140 can be worked around as easily as if it had only 
one long trunk. In fact, branches that start high from a trunk 
are likely to become horizontal and to droop. There must be a 



148 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



oortain numbor of main or so;vffoUi limbs to form the head. If 
these limbs are taken out comparatively low, they may be 
trahied in an upright diivction and hold their weight and posi- 
tion. If they are started out very high, they may not take such 
an upright dii^ection. because the tree does not grow beyond its 







140. A high-hoadod short- 
trunkod tree. 




141. Vaso-fonn poach tree. 



normal stature. High-trained trees are oft^n practically lowest- 
headed. Tillage is as easy about such a tree as Fig. 141 as about 
one like Fig. 142; and the former often holds its shape the 
longer if properly pruned. 

In regions m which tree trunks are liable to sun-scald, the 
bodies should be short. In nearly all regions outside of the 
eastern states this danger threatens, and it is often serious on 
the Plains and westward. !Most writers urge short bodies 
and low heads for the Pacific Coast. In the Plains regions it is a 
common practice to shade the trunk by some artificial means, 
but it is a question whether low-heading would not be a better 
practice. 

What length of trunk constitutes a high head or a low one 
depends on the species of tree under consideration. In apple 
trees it may be said that a top is high when the branches start 
not less than 5 feet above the groimd, and low when they start 



II K Id II T or TOP 



149 



not over 3 Unit. Pears, peaches, and j)lums arc seldom started 
as high as 5 feet. The question of high or low heads is largely 
one of elimate, methods of tillage, and kind of tree. In recent 
years, with l)ett(!r tillage tools, the tendcmcy in American orchard 
work is to start the tops low rather than high ; some growers go 
so far as practically to start the branching at the surface of the 
ground, but this is too extreme for most regions. Probably a 
trunk 23^ to 33^ feet high rej^resents a fair average for most 
orchard fruits. 

The number of main or scaffold branches should be decided 
on, in a general way, before the pruning of the young tree is seri- 
ously begun. Too many limbs are more frequent than too few. 
Four or five scaffold limbs are usually sufficient for an orchard 

tree. The operator should also 
consider wheth(;r he wants the 
trunk to continue beyond the 
lower branches. 



Figs. 143 and 







142. 



A long trunk does not neces- 
sarily give a high top. 




-:^ot?vi^*v■■ 



14.'i. Apple tree with open center. 



144 suggest the problem. In Fig. 143 is shown a "single- 
story" apple tree, and in Fig. 144 a "double-story" tree. It is 
not possible to secure the latter form in all varieties of apples, 
and rarely possible with peaches, but it is nearly always easily 
secured with pears. Whenever such form can be secured (Fig. 



i:hi 



SPKCIFIl' MHlCh: 






1 IP it is [o he \nv(cnvd. It is thou possible to proihuv a gitvUer 
surfaco lor fruit -boariuii. [he \o'm\ is luoro evmilv ilistrilnitoil, 
and thoro is loss dan^vr of splitting. This hiiih-i'outorod frame- 
work is seeinvd by allowing the loader to I'lnitinuo. The leadtM' 

may be out baok when the tree is 

planted, but a new one will start, 

and this n\av be allowed to grow. 

_^\ t^ .« It will soon reaoh the limit oi its 

,^ -> ;^t'*' height and make a nm'mal systtMU 

f.^^^,': 5^..v (^fbranohes. 

IVo \ery important points in 

^ , \ .: ^-;„- .^-.^ - tiie pruning of fruit-trees are, I to 

il'y'' '6^'^^^^^" detern\ine the pn^por framework for 

* the top. and (.'J^i to kiH^p the tree 

open and shajH^y. allowing it to 

eontinue its natural habit of growth. 

" It must be thi^ aun, while prunnig 

all that is neeessarv, not to overdo the operation. Continued 

heavy pruning is umlesirablo for most purposes, and on young 

trees it delays the period of fruit-bearing. 



>;> 




HOW TO TUIM NKWl.V SET TUEKS 



When trees are transplanted, it is advisable to out away all 
broken or badly torn roots. These slunild be out otY just baok 
of the injiuy. It is the oustom to out od the ends of all roots of 
the size of a lead-penoil or larger, for a olean smooth wtnmd is 
supposed to heal quioker than a ragged one. These outs aiv 
made from within outward, and so that the out surface i^est^ 
tirmly on the grcnnul when the tree is set. When the tree is 
planted, all the roots should bo straightened out to nearly or 
quite theii' noniial position. If one or two roots run otY to an 
hiordinate length, they may be o\it baok to i'orros]Hnnl somewhat 
with the nuun root-system. (See pages Ui-l, U),").) 



rUIMMISfJ Y(Ji:S(J THKEH 151 

Peryjaps half the rooi-nyHUtrn in lr;ft in thr; j^round whrm the 
troAi m dug from the ruirwiry row. The top Hhould \x', cut back 
U> a r^fjrroKf>onding c.xUtni. In far;t, the Ujp Hhould yx; more 
w;v(;rely h}iort/;rj<;^l-in tlian the nxjt, \x'/:mii¥t the nxA, in a/Jdition 
fxj Uiin(4 rwiucwl, ih alisfj dirUxigf'A from the wjil, with which it 
muKt f^tabhwh a new union \)<'.i<)r<i it can rf^jrne tpje normal 
a<;tivitif^., 'i'n^jK allowed t/j carry t/>f> much t/>p when planU^l 
muy fail outrij^lit i/) grow, parlJcularly in rej^onu of very hot 
HumrnerH and Bcant rainfall; or if they ntart, they are likely to 
Ixj^verlaken by drouj^ljtK. Kven if they live, the growth m 
iwually Hrnall and unwrtain, and tluj tree may fall a prey to 
lK>re,rK or a victim to higli win'lH. 

On tlie. other hand, ircjtH may Ix; imnrfuui too nevcrely when 
»et. Ex('Aii)t prjjsMibly in the caw; of ]xtiU'\i(% or otlwjr tre^js Hct 
whfm one year old and lx;aring fn^li bu^ln along the axi«, it h^ 
unwiw; U) trim t}je trf;<;H U) a mcsH pole (page 01); and with 
pea^ihr^H, it may Ixi Ixjtter U) leav(; KpurH with at leawt one bud 
than U) trim to a whip. 'I"?iere Khould Ix; a nurnlx;r of strong 
briglit buflH left on the t/;p, for thew; are the pointH where early 
and active growth Ixjginn. Thef^fi burJH are on Ktrong branchr^s. 
If thf;y arf; removed, the weaker or half-<iormant bufi« on the 
main trunk or low down in the crotchen muKt take up the work, 
and thew; wtart wlowly and off/m fwbly. It i« a grxxl pnu-Ami to 
nib off the Kupf;rfluouK or inf^^rfering Kho^As B^xjn aft*;r they 
start-, for the firnt year or two. 

Two general methcxlw of trimming the Ujpn of young trrjen at 
planting time an; current: CI; One meth^xi cutH ba^;k all the 
branchcK U> iq>urH of one U) ihrcAt budn; or wjmetim(;H, par- 
ticularly with dwarf \Ht'd.m K(;t wh^m two yf;arH old, the side 
branchf;H may Ix; cut cmtirely away, leaving only the bu^lK on the 
main Kt/;m or trunk. 'I'he ircAt, therefore, "f(;ath<;r« out" the 
first w;aHrjn, making many Hmall (shootn along the; main trunk. 
Th(; following autumn or spring, tlie top Is Ktartx;^! at thf; df;Kirf;rl 
bciglit. Fig. 14o sljowh a pea^;h tree as rcceivwi from the nurs- 



152 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



ery, and Fig. 146 the same tree trimmed in this way, ready for 
planting. This method is the one generally best adapted to the 
peach, which is always set when but one season old from the 
bud; but for other fruits, unless the trees are slender and with- 
out good branchy tops, it is doubtful whether it is the best 
practice. If the bodies are not thought to be stiff enough, this 
way of trimming may be used to good advantage. The main 
shoot should usually be headed-back, to make the trunk stocky. 
(2) The second method aims to start the top at the required 
height when the tree is planted. It is adapted only to strong 
and well-gro^\^l stocks with a more or less branching 
and forking top. From three to five of the best 
branches are left, and these are headed-back to a few 



\ 






\ 



/ 




146. 
The tree 
pruned. 



148 

The same 

pruned. 



149. 

Spur- 

pruuing of 

a plum 

stock. 



TRIMMING YOUNG TREES 



153 



buds each. Fig. 147 shows a pear tree, trimmed in Fig. 148, 
and the illustrations may be considered to represent a good 
example of its class. 

It may be said in general, 
then, that peach trees and all 
small or slender trees, should 
h)e well headed - Vjack and 
spurred (Fig. 146); but that 
strong well-branched trees may 
havtt the head started at the 
desired height at the time of 
setting, all the branches being 
well headed-back (Figs. 147 
and 148j. Some persons object 
to any pruning of the nursery 
tree beyond the removal of 
injured parte, when it is tran.s- 
planted to its permanent posi- 
tion; but experience has de- 
monstrated its value, as have 
also the tests of Pickering at 
Wobum, Chittenden of the 
Royal Horticultural Society 
(London), and others. 

Other and special examples 
of pruning young trees may be 
given. Fig. 149 shows a small 

plum tree cut to spurs, and the roots have also been properly 
dressed. Fig. 1.50 shows second-class apple trees. In these the 
tops are not well formed, and it might be best to trim to a 
whip, allowing the branches m to become the leaders. Such 
whips may look very crooked and scrawny, but they will 
straighten as they grow. 

The extent to which cutting-back may be desirable in young 




1.50. 



Second-class trees, showing the 
leader at m. 



154 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



trees is shown in tlio various preceding pictures. It is also illus- 
trated in Figs. 151 and 152, in each of which the marks across 
the branches show where the cutting may be made. Fig. 153 
is designed to show where the branches may be severed in trees 
which it is desired to head-in very 
closely. One or two of the lower 
branches have been entirely cut off, 
and others are cut back to one or 
two buds, as at c. Fig. 154 (from 
Chandler) shows a desirable spur- 
system of priming a peach tree if it 
has good branches 
when it comes from 
the nursery. Fig. 
155 shows the result 
at the close of the 
first season, the cen- 
tral shoots having 
been pinched out 
to make a spread- 
ing head (both fig- 
ures redrawn from 
Bulletin No. 55, 
Missouri State 
Board of Horticulture). Pear and apple trees of various kmds 
and grades are slun^Ti in Figs. 150 and 157 as received from the 
nurscr>' and as pruned by an experienced practical fruit-grower. 
In all the examples so far considered, it is assumed that the 
operator desires to have a distinct tnmk to his tree, and to 
start the top at a height of 2 feet or more from the ground. It 
is upon this assumption that American nurserymen prune their 
trees, making a single shaft. Persons who wish a very low-topped 
tree, therefore, may find difhculty hi obtaining it from the 
strong-bodied trees which the nurserymen supply. When it is 




.f^Wlf' 



TSS^Ms-^:rr 



151. 
ShowiuK where 
to out the limbs, 







152. Showing where to cut 
the limbs. 



TRIMMING YOUNG TREES 



155 



desired that the Hmbs shall start low, it is usually best to buy 
yearling trees. These carry strong live buds on the main shaft, 
with very f(!W or w(;ak sid(! branch(!S. What side Vjranches may 
exist are cut off, and the; tr(!(! is head(;d-back to a single whip, so 
that side branches are thrown out fn^ely near the base of the 
plant. Fig. 158 illustrates such treatment. At the expiration 
of the first year, th(; tr(;(; should look something like that at the 
left in Fig. 159, at which tinu; some of the branches may be 
removed, kiaving only as many as it is desired shall form the 
main- or scaffold limbs. Some fruit-growers prefer to allow the 
leader to continue in trees of this kind; but it is usually desirable 
to take out the leader and to allow the tree to form all its top on 
four to six main branches, which arise at intervals along the 

short trunk. Two-year-old trees may 
f / also be trimmed to a whip, and if 

/ 




153. Trimming to 
stubs. 



154. Spur-prun- 
ing of a poach tree, 
at setting time. 



155. The tree shown in 
Fig. 1.54 at the close of the 
first season. 



15(> 



SPECIFIC .xnvich: 



thoy aiv ho;\«.U\i-iu. or tho youiig growths nonr tho top ;uv 
taken ofY :u^ thoy start, ouo mayoxixH't to soouiv branolios i\oar 
tho baso. A t\\\>->oar-<.>Ul troo triininoil to a singlo oaiio is 

shown at tho riglU in 
Fig. liV,>; a branoli is 
st;\riing noar tho groui\d. 
l\v hoading-in this tiw 
when it is sot. or soon 
ivftor gnnvth bogins. tho 
bottom branohos may bo 
still fnrthor onoonragini. 

AUhongh poaoh tiws 
aiv plant od whon thoy aiv 
ono yoar oUl. thoy havo 
gonorally bivn trimmod 
lip in tho nm^sory. so 
that tho lowor bnmohos 
aix^ dostroyod. Tho ton- 
donoy for snoh tiws is 
to tlnxnv ont branohos 
noar tho top. and it is 
ofton impossiblo to make 
thorn branoh within 2 
fix^t or loss of tho givund, 
whoiv n\any pooplo dosiiv 
tluit tho top sliall arise. 
Fig. 100 is a tiw that 
has thixnni out two sots 
of branohos. ono noar tho 
top of tho long trunk, 
and tho other near the 
base. After this tiw has 
growni one season, it n\ay 

Nursorv trxvs hotort^ and :»ttor pruning. , „ . . 

for tnuisplautiii^ to Uio orvluml. be CUt Ott at tllO pomt 




i:hv 





167. Nursery trees before and after pruning. 



(167) 



158 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



indicated by the bar; and the tree should then make a low and 
vase-formed top like that sho\\Ti in Fig. 141. 

Trees may be trimmed before they are planted, although it 
is generally better to prune the tops just after the plants are 
set, especially if the tree is trimmed after the pattern of Fig. 148, 
for one can then better estimate the proper height, the operation 
is easier performed, and there is no further danger of breaking 
off the Hmbs by the handling of the tree. 
One foot is planted finnly at the base of the 




158. 

Trimming to 

a whip. 



159. The second year's growth; a 
two-year-old trimmed to a "whip. 



160. Opportunity for 
a choice. 



tree, and then with one hand the branch to be removed is bent 
upward and with the other the knife is applied to the under 
side, and the cut is made neatly and easily (Fig. 161). Never 
cut downward on a limb, for a ragged wound nearly always 
follows. 

With fall-set trees it may be inadvisable to prune com- 
pletely before spring (unless the tops are so heavy and the 
bodies so weak that they are likely to be injured by wind), 



PRUNING TO A BUD 



159 



because the cut surfaces are likely to dry out, although the 

moisture loss would undoubtedly be less than from the twigs 
themselves should they be allowed to 
remain. They should be cut back part 
way, and they may be cut again, to 
fresh wood, in spring (page 67). 

We have already discussed the im- 
portance of pruning near a bud (Figs. 
84, 85, 86), because the part projecting 
beyond the bud dies and remains a 
dangerous part. The stubs are, there- 
fore, cut back to a fresh bud in the 
spring, just before growth begins, leav- 
ing a stub above the bud not more than 
H inch in length. Figs. 162 and 163 
illustrate the proper pruning of trees 
with reference to the buds. It is con- 
sidered important by some pruners to 
cut to a bud that stands on the outside 

of the twig, thereby causing the top to 

spread. It is usually the top bud that 

grows, providing the stub is not dried 

back and the bud is 

strong and healthy. If 

this top bud is on the 

inside of the limb, it 

does not tend to spread 

so far from the per- 
pendicular as one on 

the outside.. Figs. 163 

and 164 are made from 

the same plant, the 

latter illustration taken 




161. 



Trimming a newly 
set tree. 



m 



162. Shaping 

May. It Will be the top. 




163. Shaping the top. 



160 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



seen that the top buds have grown, and that the tendency of 
the upper growth at 3 is more nearly peipcndicular than that 
at 1. As growth progresses, however, the shoot 1 will turn 
upward and will very nearly approach the perpendicular. It is 
not often worth the while to pay much attention to the loca- 
tion of the upper bud, with respect to the axis of the shoot, but 
it is important to trim back to a strong healthy bud. 

The illustrations Figs. 162 and 163 show a good way of leaving 
the mam scaffold branches. They arise alternately from the main 

stem, and therefore do not form 
crotches, and there is little danger 
that such injuries will occur as 




164. 



How the growth starts 
on Figure 163. 




165. The scaffold limbs. 



that shown in Fig. 104. If it is desned that the leader shall 
continue to form a two-storied tree, like that in Fig. 144, the 
shoot from the uppermost bud may be allowed to grow for 
this puipose. That is, even though the leader is cut off, the 
plant throws out a new one. 

It is often impossible to start the top in the form we desu-e, 
and our desire may change from year to year, so that we may be 
called on to modify the form at first projected. It will also be 



STARTING THE TOI' 



101 




IGO. Raising the top. 



necessary to thin the top considerably, else too many scaffold 
limbs may arise. Fig. 165 shows a Bartlott pear tree at the end 
of its s(;cond year in the orchard. At the left, the unpninf.'d tree 
is shown; and at the right, 
all the limbs have lx;en re- 
moved except three, which 
it is desired shall form the 
framework of the tree. When 
set, this tree was cut back to 
three limbs, as may be deter- 
mined by the method of 
branching of the tree at the 
left; and from the end of 
each of these stubs two or 
three branches arose the next 
season. Now that the tree 
has estaVjlished itself, and it is no longer necessary to head-in 
the young growths, this forked branching will not 
recur, and the tree will need comparatively little 
attention in pruning, except, of course, that all the 
superfluous growth should be 
removed each year. Fig. 166 
shows the treatment of a 
Bartlett pear that the owner 
had started too low. He has 
now taken off the lower circles 
of limbs and has elevated the 
top Vjy aVjout a foot, leaving 
two or three stu?js for the 
foundation of his growth for 
the year to come. Often it is 
necessary to cut back very 
heavily the second year, in 
order properly to shape up the 




167. Pear tree 
pruned the 
Hecond time. 



168. A common 
fault with peach 
trees. 



102 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



top and to secure the necessary stocky framework branches, as 
in Fig. 107; this is specially the case when the tree was trimmed 
to a whip the first year. 

Peach trees are likely to die back from the top, especially if 
they have been set in aiitunni; and since they ha\'e few buds on 
their bodies, they may throw out adventitious shoots near the 
point of imion of the bud with the stock. Fig. 108 shows a case 
of this kind, in which the trunk A has died back nearly to the 





170. 

Another trouble with 

young peach trees. 




171. How to 
correct it. 



ground. The two lowermost branches arise from the stock and 
are, therefore, to be sacrificed; but the first strong shoot from 
the bud is allowed to grow, and everythmg else is cut away, as 
sho^^^l in Fig. 109. The grower now has the pUmt under con- 
trol, and can start the top where he may choose. Peach trees 
also have a tendency to throw out strong growths from one side 
and to be blind or dormant on the other side. Such growth is 
sho^^^l in Fig. 170. In this figure, the long trunk has been cut 
back to the branches, and these branches should now be headed- 
in to five or six buds. Strong shoots, with dn upward tendency, 
will now start from the base of these branches, and at the end 



PRUNING THE HOOTS 163 

of the second year, a tree Bomething like that in Fig. 171 may 
bo secured. 

ROOT-PRUXIXG 

To understand the vexed question of root-pruning, it is 
necessary that the subject be analyzed. We prune the roots 
I. Of plants at transplanting time, to remove injured parts 

and to maintain a balance between root and top; 
II. Of established plants — 

1. To keep the growth within bounds, particularly when 
* it is desired that the plant shall be dwarf; 

2. To concentrate or contract the foraging area of the 

roots; 

3. To make plants fruitful. 

We have already found (Section 2, Chapter V) that root^ 
pruning checks growth: it cuts off a part of the food-supply. 
The same principles govern the practice of root-pruning as of 
top-pruning. The wounds heal by the formation of a callus, 
germs of decay enter exposed wounds, new or adventitious roots 
start as the result of heavy pruning, the severed leader (or tap- 
root) tends to renew itself (see Fig. 132), and the general remarks 
on seasons for pruning apply to roots with nearly the same force 
as to tops. Since roots have no buds, the new h)ranches do not 
arise in a definite order as they do on tops, but this is a matter 
of no consequence to the grower. The direction of the roots is 
important — whether they run horizontally and near the surface, 
or perpendicularly. The direction, however, is not determined 
primarily by methods of pruning, but by the nature of the 
plant, by the soil, and the distribution of moisture and food. 

The root-pruning of established plants is practicable only on 
a small scale. It is performed sometimes in amateur plantations, 
or when it is desired to keep plants within definite Vjounds or 
shapes. It is essentially a garden idea. It is practised in Euro- 
pean inclosures, in the growing of trees to pyramids, cordons, 



164 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



or espaliers, and the like. (See Chapter VII.) By cutting the 
roots, they are kept within a prescribed area, and do not inter- 
fere with other plants. The tops of the plants are thereby 
checked of exuberant growth, and are more manageable on 
walls and trellises. These small bearing trees are often taken 

up and replanted, in 
order to keep them 
within bounds. In the 
well- tilled gardens, and 
in cool and moist 
climates, it is often 
thought to be desirable 
to keep the roots near 
the surface; but in 
American orchard con- 
ditions it is desirable 
that the roots strike 
deep. 

Root - pruning is a 
very special practice, 
and needs no further 
treatment here. It 
should be employed with 
caution, for while the 
pruner may remove a 
large proportion of the 
top without causing in- 
jury, a relatively small reduction of the root has marked 
effects and may permanently injure the plant. 

Root-pruning when transplanting. 

Root-pruning naturally results from the removal of plants. 
The severed roots, when as large as a lead-pencil, should be cut 
back to live uninjured wood, and the wound should be clean- 





R A^" 




WN/^iL 


.^^ ~> 


^^^^v'^'*^^^ 


^m 


^V^^^"*^^"^ 


~^^7], 


iM^^wS^i^^"^^^^ 


& 


'^P\ 


■"j^p 


Mp 


— ^ 


^^ 


/'Y' 




\ 





172 Roots do not start from the callus. 



TRIMMING THE ROOTS 



165 



cut. The main roots of nursery trees two to four years old may 
be left 6 to 10 inches long (page 150). 

There is much discussion as to where the new roots arise in 
transplanted trees. They do not necessarily, if ever, arise from 
the callus. From an apple tree two years old, one side of the 
root was shaved. The tree was planted, and after growing two 
years, was taken up and photographed (Fig. 172). The callus 
had formed on both sides of the w^ound, but no roots had 
started from it. 

Jhe new roots usually arise from firm strong roots the size 
of a lead-pencil or larger; but they may also arise from the hair- 
hke roots which are on the tree when it is transplanted. The 
place from which the new roots arise is largely determined by 
the habit of the individual plant. In some cases, all the roots 
spring from the main shaft or trunk, and in others they seem 
to arise almost indiscriminately from the tnmk, large roots and 
verj^ fine roots. The figures, carefully drawn, from actual 
examples of apple 
trees, illustrate the 
point. The root at the 
left in Fig. 173 was 
trimmed of all its 
fine roots when trans- 
planted. It is seen 
that the new roots 
start from different 
parts of the root-sys- 
tem. The root at the 
right in Fig. 173 had 
a few smaU but not 
very fine roots left. 
The new roots are 
starting from near the 
ends of these roots, 173. where the new roots start. 




166 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

large and small alike. The roots do not start from the calluses. 
The notion that roots start directly downward if the old roots 
are cut diagonally on the under side, so that the callus looks 
downward, is a fallacy. 

In practice, it is usually inadvisable to exercise much care to 
save the very fine roots when transplanting shrubs and trees, for 
such roots are liable to be killed by short exposure to the weather, 
and to be injured in shipping and transplanting; but the opinion 
that they are of no use in a transplanted tree, and that new 
roots do not arise from them, is erroneous. 

Some years ago a so-called system of close root-pruning was 
advocated as the result of the experiments and writings of H. M. 
Stringfellow, of Texas, and it has come to be known as the 
stub-root or Stringfellow system. It cuts off practically all the 
roots, leaving only stubs an inch or two long; and it cuts back 
the tops to a mere stump 12 to 18 inches high. The best exposi- 
tion of the subject is contained in Stringfellow's "New Horti- 
culture," published in 1896, but the public interest in the subject 
has not been maintained. Persons interested in it will find a dis- 
cussion also in the original "Pruning-Book." 

SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT OF THE PLANTS 

Having now obtained a general conception of the type of 
tree we wish to grow, and having started off the main or scaffold 
branches, the subsequent treatment con- 
sists in cutting out all interfering and 
superfluous limbs and keeping the top 
within the shape that we have in mind. 

In fruit-trees, the head should be kept 
fairly open, so that all parts are exposed to 
sun and air, and the tree is made accessible 
174. Greening tree of to pickers, and easy to Spray. Thick-headed 

two seasons growth, ^ ' . . . 

unpruned and pruned, trecs are modifications for climates m 




A GREENING APPLE TREE 



167 



which sun-scald is a menace. All limbs that tend to make an 
over-vigorous growth should be cut out or checked, in order 
that the tree may keep its balance; and limbs that run 





175. The same tree, unpruned and pruned, two years later. 

directly crossswise the top, and those that rub each other, should 
be removed. 

Some of the problems connected with the form of the top may 
be suggested in a series of pictures taken from an individual 
tree of Rhode Island Greening. This tree was set in the spring 
of 1889. Having grown two years without pruning, in the 
autumn of 1890 it looked like the left- 
hand tree in Fig. 174. In the winter 
of 1890-1891 it was pruned, as shown 
at the right. The tree stands in rich 
ground and has made a heavy growth. 
As the top begins to expand, the ap- 
parent length of the trunk decreases, 
and in the fall of 1892 the tree looked 
as shown in Fig. 175; that is, tops 
which may look to be very high when 
trees are young may appear to be low 
when the trees have attained some age. 
These pictures are drawn to a scale, 




176. The tree starting into 
growth in its third season in 
the orchard. 



168 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



and the length of trunk bears a true proportion to the width 
of the top. In the winter of 1892-1893 the tree, as shown at 
the left in Fig. 175, was pruned to the extent sho^vn at the 
right, and the following summer (1893) the tree had the form 
sho^\^l in Fig. 176. Late in the season of 1894 the tree was 
draA\Ti again, as shown in Fig. 177. The following winter it 
was again primed, and in the spring of 1895 it had the appear- 
ance of Fig. 178. It will be seen that the long and stilt-like 








\11. The tree in the autumn of 1894. 

character of the tree has disappeared, and the very perceptible 
crook in the trunk has tended to straighten. The tree now 
begins to have character, and its four scaffold limbs are well 
established. The tree is not perfect in form, however, since it 
has perhaps too much of a crotch; eleven years later (1916), 
as showTi in Fig. 179, the trunk has good form for the 
variety and the scaffold Ihnbs have taken on their mature 
character; of course, the entire top is not shoA\Ti in this picture. 
A Tetofsky apple tree, two years planted, is showii in Fig. 
180. This variety makes very few strong interior growths, and 



THE TOP OF THE YOUNG TREE 169 

therefore needs comparatively little thinning. It is already 
making conspicuous fruit-spurs alongside the upright branches. 
I'lie pruning of the tree is shown at the right. There are three 
main or scaffold limbs. It may be necessary to remove some 
of the oth(!r branches as time goes on; but it is always difficult 
to determine in the beginning which ones are wanted, and it is 
well not to trim the tree too heavily, so as to reduce its leaf- 



^^ 







^^i^i 



'h 







178. In the spring of 1895, having been pruned in the winter. 

bearing capacity, or to set it into too strong growth of water- 
sprouts. 

A Longficld apple tree is shown in Fig. 181. The variety 
has a drooping habit, and an effort is made to encourage the 
upper limbs and to remove the lower or declining parts. How 
this is accomplished is shown at the right. The tree was started 
too low in the first place, and it has a bad crotch; and later on, 
the large fork on the right was entirely removed. It then had 
a good form, but the tree is now weeping as much as ever; that 
is, it is impossible to overcome the natural habit of the tree, 



170 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



and however high such a variety may be trained, it will eventu- 
ally reach nearly or quite to the ground. 

A sweet cherry (Windsor) is shown in Fig. 182. This also 
has a bad crotch, and eventually one of the branches was cut 



i"^.'-*:. ■'■Wk -Vo- 





179. The trunk and main branches 
in the summer of 1916. 



180. Tetofsky apple unpruned 
and pruned. 



away, at a on the right, leaving a tree of good form, with 
the branches started about 4 feet high. The general thinning 
of the top is shown at the right. A sour cherry (Early Rich- 
mond) is shown, 
after pruning, in 
Fig. 183. This tree 
has an excellent 
type of branching, 
and the pruning is 
about as nearly 
perfect as one ordi- 
narily can make it. 
An apricot tree 
is sho^vn in Figs. 

181. Longfield apple tree before and after pruning. 184 and 185. ThlS 




TOPS OF YOUNG TREES 



171 



tree grows against the south side of a building, although it is 
not trained on the wall. It is desired, therefore, to have a 
very flat and spreading top. The branches were started low, 
but they arise too 
nearly from a com- 
mon point, thereby 
making a bad 
crotch, yet the apri- 
cot is less hkely to 
split than trees that 
bear heavier loads 
of fruit. The tree 
was neglected for 
three or four years, 
and when pruning 
became necessary, 
it was thinned out 
to the extent shown in Fig. 185. The head can thereafter 
be kept free and open with only a slight effort of annual 
cutting. 




182. Sweet cherry unpruned and pruned. 





183. Well-formed sour cherry tree. 



184. Apricot tree in need 
of pruning. 



172 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 




A neglected peach tree, four years planted, is shown in Fig. 
186. It is very thick, and some of the lower branches are weak 
and almost dead because they have been overshaded by the 

dense top. This tree was pruned 
to the form shown at the right, and 
developed into a handsome and 
prolific tree. Fig. 187 is adapted 
from photographs pubhshed by J. 
H. Hale, to show the methods of 
treating a peach tree. 

In the transplanting of large or 
established trees, it is necessary 
that the tops be headed-back, and 
the more serious the cutting of the 
roots, the more extensive should be 
the cutting-in of the top. Fig. 188 
shows a six-year-old cherry tree cut 
In all such cases, it is important 
that old and dry stubs are not left. The stubs should be 
cut back from time to time as new branches start, giving 
preference to the strong growth and cutting out the feeble 
wood. 

The pruning of a large or old tree when removed is a 
^^ I ^ , subject for the spe- 

cialist. It is easily 
possible to stub- 
back so heavily as 
to prevent its re- 
suming its activi- 
ties. As much of 
the root-system is 
retained, so much 
of the top may 

186. Neglected peach tree, before and after pruning, remam. 



185. One way of handling the 
tree (Fig. 184). 

back after transplanting. 




GRAFTED TREES 



173 



MANAGEMENT OF TOP-WORKED TREES 

When trees are top-budded or top-grafted, it is usually the 
purpose to change their entire top to the new variety. In old 
trees it is mostly de- 
sirable to graft all 
the leading limbs, 
thereby endeavoring 
to maintain the 
original shape as 
nearly as possible. 
In young trees, only 
two or three of the 
limbs can be grafted 
or budded, and some- 
times the whole top 
is cut off and cions 




1S7. Peach tree before and after pruning and 
heading-back. 



set in the main stock or trunk. The 
grafting of the main trunk has disadvantages, because a bad 
fork is hkely to occur at the graft, 
and it is usually better, therefore, 
to set the cions or buds in the 
branches. Fig. 189 shows the 
treatment of a small top-budded 
apple tree. Three buds are in- 
serted, one in the main trunk or 
leader, and one in each of the two 
side branches. The buds are in- 
serted in sunmier, and early the 
next spring the limbs are cut 34 
inch above each bud, as in A. 
Fig. 190 shows another tree in 
which many buds have been set, 
all of which are growing. It shows , , 

., , ,, , T . , 1 1 ii 188. A large tree headed-back 

that the stubs project beyond the on transplanting. 






5S;5W?S&»-^^«''<> 






/£ 







ISO. Top-budded apple tree. 



'iv^ ^A ^}-Mv- 



191. Yoving pear tree 
top-grafted, from whieh the 
watersprouts or suckers 
had not been removed. 

(174) 



190. Top-budded young 
apple tree. 




^.-J^ 



192. 
_ The tree pnmed 
(Fig. 191). 



TOP-WORKED TREES 



175 



buds. As soon as the buds have begun to grow vigorously, 
these stubs are cut back close to the base of the new branch to 
facilitate their healing over. 

A strong pear tree was grafted in three limbs in April. In 
September of the same year, the tree looked as shown in Fig. 
191, being very much entangled with strong watersprouts, 
because of the severe prun- ^ /i?; ^ 

ing. Before growth began the 
following spring, all of this 
adventitious growth was 
removed, the tree then looking 
as in Fig. 192. Some of the 
branches of the stock were 
left, since the grafts were not 
yet large enough to form the 
whole top. If too much of 
the stock is cut off, the cions 
tend to grow too long and are 
likely to be broken by snow 
and wind. 

In trees set only two to four 
years, the top can be changed 
in two years by grafting; but apple trees fifteen to twenty years 
old ordinarily can not be changed so rapidly. Four or five years 
may be required in some cases. Fig. 193 is a Lombard plum tree 
grafted to a Japanese variety. The tree was four years old 
when grafted, and the second year thereafter all the old top 
was removed, as shown in the illustration. It will now be 
necessary to remove some of the cions and to thin out the 
top, much as if the tree were recently planted. 

The operator must look out for adventitious growths or 
suckers from the stock, after the tree has been changed to the 
desired variety. The equilibrium of the tree has been so much 
upset by the heavy pruning that these watersprouts and auxil- 




193. A top-grafted 
plum tree. 



194. 

The upright 

suckers should 

have been 

removed. 



176 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



iary growths may arise for several years. Fig. 194 is a Kil- 
marnock willow, a weeping variety, grafted on a strong upright- 
growing stock. In this case, the stock has thrown out long 
suckers, and the drooping head is beginning to famish and die. 

These suckers should be re- 
moved as soon as they 
begin to fonn. This trouble 
of suckering from the stock is 
likely to occur in ornamental 
plants, as in top -worked 
weeping and variegated 
varieties. Such varieties are 
generally weak growers, and 
cannot take up the exuberant 
strength of the root ; and 
often the stock is not of the 
right kind or species. 

Usually not all the shoots 
arising the first year from the 
cions should be allowed to 
grow, for they may be too 
many to form a proper framework. One of the two cions stand- 
ing on the opposite sides of a stub is commonly removed to 
avoid the making of crotches; such forks are evident in Fig. 193. 
However, good results often follow the leaving of even too 
many of the cion-shoots, as shown in Fig. 195, which is an apple 
tree grafted sixty years ago. 




195. Old apple tree top-grafted when 
young, the head being formed directly 
from the cion-shoots. 



MANAGEMENT OF DWARF TREES 



Dwarf plants are those that do not attain to the normal or 
habitual stature of the species or variety to which they belong. 
There are two general kinds of dwarf plants — dwarf varieties, 
and dwarf individuals. The former class retains its dwarfness 



DWARFS 177 

of itself, without artificial aid. It is the nature of such plants to 
be dwarf, or small in stature. The second class is forced to be 
dwarf by some treatment which is applied to each individual 
plant, as — 

By grafting or budding on a slower-growing root or stock; 

By confining the tops by means of pruning or training; 

By confining the roots by means of pruning, or by growing 
in pots, boxes, or other restricted place. 

The first of these three categories is not a subject for discus- 
sion in a pruning-book, but it may be said that it is not enough 
that the plant be worked on slow-growing root: it must also 
be systematically headed-in if its stature is to be kept within 
bounds. This is true of dwarf pears, dwarf apples, dwarf cher- 
ries, and all the rest. 

Root-pruning, as a means of limiting growth, has already 
been discussed (page 163). 

Top-pruning of a dwarf has two objects — ^to limit the 
growth, and to train the plant to a desired form. Pruning to 
limit growth is merely heading-back. This should be performed 
every winter. How much the growth shall be headed-back de- 
pends on its length and the age of the tree. Dwarf pears and 
apples making an average growth of 18 to 30 inches on the 
uppermost twigs are usually headed-back one-half to five-sixths 
of that growth. This cutting-back will induce a lateral or 
interior growth (Section 9, Chapter V), and this must be thinned 
out. It is generally best to prune late in winter or early in 
spring, and to cut to within three-eights inch of a bud (see 
Figs. 84, 85). 

Pruning to secure some desired shape of the top must, of 
course, be governed by the ideal pattern of the operator. There 
are two general forms to which dwarf fruit-trees are pruned — 
the pyramid and the inverted cone. The pyramid is popular in 
Europe, and the Old-World writings contain minute descriptions 
of the details of pruning for it. Fig. 196 shows dwarf pear 



178 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



pyramids. The essential feature of this type of training is a 
central shaft from which successive tiers of branches are taken. 
The flat-topped or inverted-cone-shaped style of training is 
the conunonest pattern in commercial American orchards, 
although there are few plantations in which it has been syste- 
matically worked out. Good trees of this form are shown in Fig. 
197. The essential feature of this type of training — which is 






V ^ ^ A 'K 





196. Dwarf pears in 
pyramid form. 



^^ 



197. Dwarf pears in the 
flat-topped form. 



probably best for orchard conditions — is a framework of 
several approximately coordinate branches arising near the 
ground. The training of such trees requires the following pro- 
cedure (Yeomans) : 

"A dwarf pear tree should never be planted at one year old. A good 
one-year-old tree consists of a single upright shoot or stem, from 3H to 
5 feet high, and should be cut off at about 2 feet from the ground; and in 
order to give a smooth handsome stem or trunk, let the buds be rubbed off 
to the height of 1 foot from the ground, leaving on the upper portion six to 
nine buds, more or less. With the tree standing in its original position in 
full vigor, and cut back as above stated, each one of these buds will throw 
out a good strong branch, which gives a full round distaff form to the 
tree. This is the time and manner, and the only time, when that desirable 
shape can be given on which the future form and symmetry and beauty 
depend. To avoid what is termed a crotched or forked-top tree, in which 
the two uppermost branches are about of equal vigor and height, let the 



DWARF PEARS 



179 



second branch from the top be pinched off when about 9 inches or 1 foot 
long, which will chock and weaken it, while the uppermost one becomes a 
strong central leader. If the tree be transplanted at one year old, and cut 
back as above stated, the vital forces of the tree will be weakened half or 
three-fourths by transplanting, and as the result, only two or three (more 
or less) of the buds on the trunk will grow so as to form branches, and they, 
perhaps, only at the top or all on one side, while the remaining buds continue 
dormant, never afterward to be developed, as the other branches form 
new channels, which wiU more readily carry the sap to the other and upper 
portions of the trees. For transplanting, therefore, let a tree be two or 
more years old from the bud, well cut back at one year old, and with six to 
nineanain branches, which form the framework or foundation, which is to 
give form and character to the future tree, with proper care and manage- 
ment. 

"The cut (Fig. 198) illustrates a two-year-old tree, as above described, 
its lower branches about 1 foot from the ground, its upper branches being 
the strongest and most upright, and those below less vigorous and more 
horizontal. I speak of this more particu- 
larly for the reason that all the cuts which 
I have noticed in works on pomology, and 
in agricultural papers, represent a two-year- 
old tree, with branches much the longest 
and strongest at the bottom and diminish- 
ing in vigor toward the top, except, perhaps, 
the center top branch; while all experience 
illustrates the principle that the sap flows 
most freely and readily to the upper 
branches, giving them vigor, strength and 
uprightness, to the diminution of the same 
characteristics in those below. The dotted 
lines indicate where the branches should be 
cut back at the time of planting. 

"In cutting a tree, with the branches 
formed as above described, let the leader be 
cut down within 4 to 6 inches of the place where the one-year-old tree was 
cut off, and just above a good bud on the side of the tree over the previous 
year's cut, thus keeping the leader in a perpendicular position over the 
original trunk or bottom of the tree. 

If the side branches are too horizontal, upper buds are left for their 
extension; if too upright, lower buds are left. Side direction may be 
given, if desirable, to fill wide places, in the same way. Cut the other 




198. 

Treatment of 

two-year-old 

dwarf pear 

tree. 



180 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



branches at such a distance from the trunk that the ends of them will form 
a pyramid, the base of which should not be over 12 to 16 inches in diameter, 
and in smallish trees much less; thus the lowest branches will be left the 
longest, the object of which is to check the natural flow of sap to the upper 
branches, and induce it to flow more forcibly to the lower ones, increasing 
the vigor and force of the latter as much as possible, which must be done at 
that time or never. 

"The Fig. 199 represents a three-year-old tree, after it has been pruned 
at two years old and made the third year's growth, and showing where it 
should be cut back at that time. All subsequent pruning will become easy 
to anyone who has attended to these directions thus far — observing the 
same principles — thinning out or cutting back any secondary or other 
branches, as shall seem necessary to admit light and air, or give vigor or 
symmetry of form to the tree; but as the greater force of sap will flow to 
the central and upright branches, they will need to be cut back most, 
retaining as nearly as may be the pyramidal form. Pruning may be per- 
formed at any time from November to April. Gradually the p>Tamidal 
form disappears, and at full maturity the shape is that of Fig. 197, which 
represents a tree about fifty years old and 12 feet high." 

Other illustrations may explain some of the ways of treating 
dwarf pears. Fig. 200 is a tree at the end of its first season's 

growth in the or- 
chard. The forks 
near the ends of the 
branches show where 
it was cut at plant- 
ing time. The tree 
at the right shows 
the way in which it 
was again pruned. A 
dwarf pear tree three 
years set is shown in 
Fig. 201. The top 
was started wrong — 
with only two 
, ^ . . , . branches and these in 

1 oung dwarf pear tree before and 

after pruning. the form of a crotch. 




200. 



DWARFS 



181 



When pruned two sprouts were left. The tree will now have 
four scaffold branches; but it will never be a well-formed tree. 
The pruning of dwarf apples is essentially like that advised 
for pears. If the tree is on paradise stock, very close attention 
must be given to pruning, else the top will become too large for 
the root. If it is on the larger-growing doucin stock, a somewhat 
freer growth may be allowed. 

RINGING AND GIRDLING 



Girdling is a generic term used to designate the making of 
a wound completely around a stem. A girdle may extend only 
through the bark, or deep into the wood. Ringing is a specific 
horticultural term used to designate a girdle that extends only 
through the bark; the wound may be a simple incision with 
the point of a knife, or it may be made by the complete removal 
of a section of bark. In horticultural practice, girdling into 
the wood is rarely desirable, and, therefore, we shall use 
the word ringing in the present discussion. 

We have already 
considered the philos- 
ophy of ringing (page 
121 and subsequently; 
it is discussed again, 
for vinifera vines, in 
Chapter X). It pro- 
motes fruitfulness of 
the part above the 
ring, because the 
elaborated food is held 
there, not being able 
to pass the girdle in 
its downward course. 

mi r J.J. • i« .1 201. Poorly formed dwarf pear tree before 

1 he lattenmg OI the and after pruning. 




182 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

top, SO to speak, is at the expense of the part below the ring. 
If the ba.rk is not allowed to cover the ring, the root must 
eventually starve, unless there is foliage below the ring to sup- 
port it. As a matter of practice, however, the ring is made in 
spring and is allowed to heal, and the direct effect is, therefore, 
confined mostly to the year m which the ringing is performed. 

Ringing is useful in two ways — it may set unproductive 
trees into bearing, and it may modify the fruit borne above the 
ring. The former effect usually does not appear until the year 
following the ringing — sometimes not till the second year. The 
latter effect is immediate. The philosophy of the one is that 
the extra food tends to develop fruit-buds, the philosophy of 
the other is that the extra food hastens the maturity and 
increases the size of the fruit already growing. 

Ringing to induce fruit-bearing is to be regarded as a special 
practice and always to be employed with caution. It is generally 
a last resort — not because ringing injures the tree, but because 
there are more fundamental and general means of promoting 
fruitfulness. (Read pages 123-126.) If a tree here and there 
persists in being barren, it may be ringed as an experiment. 
Ringing is sometimes employed on young trees in test planta- 
tions to bring them early into bearing, but such trees are 
often seriously injured thereby. 

Ringing is usually performed about the time growth begins. 
It is well to experiment on one or two branches first. Run the 
point of a knife-blade around the stem, sinking it to the wood. 
This will usually be sufficient ; but removing an inch of bark at 
this season usually does no harm if the tree is vigorous. 

Ringing to increase the size and hasten the maturity of 
fruits is such a well-known practice that reputable societies 
have long refused to award premiums to fruits which have been 
modified in this way. The quality usually suffers. It is custom- 
ary to make the ring just after the fruit has set, so that indi- 
vidual specimens may be chosen. A strip of bark l^ inch 



RINGING 183 

wide is often taken out. The part above the ring should 
bear an abundance of foliage, else there will be insufficient 
food to support the fruit. 

Gaucher ("Die Veredelungen," 364) remarks that "the 
width of the bark to be removed from the whole circumference 
of the shoot or branch varies between 3 and 5 milUmeters (a 
millimeter is .039 inch, hence 1/10 to 2/10 inch). Wider than 
this, the cut should not be made, as otherwise it is to be feared 
the wound would remain open all summer and bring about the 
death of the part above the cut." "If performed extensively 
upon a tree," writes Lindley ("Theory of Horticulture," 
American edition, 255), ringing "is very apt, if not to kill it, 
at least to render it incurably unhealthy; for if the rings are 
not sufficiently wide to cut off all communication between the 
upper and lower lips of the wound they produce httle effect, 
and if they are, they are difficult to heal." 

Grapes can be made to ripen earlier and to grow larger if the 
vine is girdled in early summer, but the quality is supposed to 
be injured. The section of bark removed from the grape-vine is 
so large that the wound never heals, and the whole cane is cut 
away at the annual winter pruning. The renewal wood of the 
vine is not ringed, however, and this maintains the growth of 
the plant; but it is a question whether this renewal wood is 
sufficient to keep the plant strong and healthy. Grape-ringing 
has been practised by many growers, and mostly with good 
success so far as the precocity and enlargement of grapes is 
concerned. It is yet a question whether it is profitable through- 
out a series of years and with all varieties of grapes. In the 
Hudson Valley, ringing or girdling has been employed for 
many years, but is now mostly given up except now and then 
with Delaware and Champion.* 

*The subject of grape-ringing was discussed at length in the original 
"Pruning-Book," but it is a special practice of such doubtful utility that the 
account need not be repeated here. For the ringing of vinifera vines, see 
Chapter X. 



184 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



All agree that heavy fertilizing is necessary to keep up the 

vigor of girdled vinos. All weak-looking vinos are loft ungirdloil. 
The time for girdling is shortly after the fruit is formed and 
when the young grape is about the size of a pea. It is performed 
by reniON-ing a rmg of bark nearly 1 inch broad from the arm or 
branch of last year's wood. One or two shoots of the present 
season's growth should bo loft back of the girdle for renewal, or 
for the next season's bearing wood. A knife is made specially 
for this purpose; its form is shown in the illustration (Fig. 202). 

It consists of two hooked blades, 
attached to a wooden handle, 
parallel to each other and about J^ 
inch apart. The mnor part of each 
blade is tiled to a cutting edge. 
A chisel-shaped knife is fast- 
ened on the back of the handle. 
In operation the blades are 
hooked over the vine and the 
handle passed around it, at the 
same time holding the blades 
firmly on the vine; this will 
cut two lines J/g inch apart 
through the bark. The knife is 
then lifted from the vine, turned over, and with the chisel- 
shaped part the ring of bark is severed and lifted from its place. 
The whole operation is performed in a few seconds. 

The grapes should be removed from the shoots left growing 
back of the girdle, as it is desirable that these shoots should 
make a vigorous growth of wood for bearing fruit the next 
season. The vine beyond the girdle makes a great growth of 
wood and fruit, and the edge of the girdled spot calluses and 
partly overgrows the naked wood. Shortly after the fruit has 
boon harvested the gmllod part is severed from the vino for the 
benefit of next year's bearing wood. 




203. The incisions. The bark removed. 
The cane in autumn. 



RINGING 185 

Thf3 accompanying picture (Fig. 203) shows the effect of 
girdling in augmenting the size of the cane above the girdle, and 
also tlic general shape of the wound. 

The ringing of herbaceous plants, as tomato and chrysan- 
themum, to jjromote fruitfulness, gave results so deleterious to 
the plant, at the New York Experiment Station (Geneva), that 
its practice wa« discouraged. At the same station, Howe 
experimented with the ringing of fnait-trees, drawing the fol- 
lowing conclusions: "Under certain conditions, ringing may 
indiipe and possibly increase fruitfulness of apples, but it rarely 
has these favorable effects on other fruits. It had no apparent 
influence upon the size, color, or maturity of apples. Only 
young and very vigorous apple trees, possibly now and then 
pear and cherry trees, can survive ringing, and even with 
these fruits the compeiLsating gains seldom offset the injury to 
the trees. 

"The practice of ringing stone-fruits should never be followed. 
The experiments indicate almost 100 per cent loss in the life of 
the trees. 

"Regular and successive increases in productiveness did not 
result from the ringing of several varieties of our tree-fruits. 

"The general effect of ringing on the roots of the trees was 
to decrease their size and number and to lessen their vigor." 

RENEWING OLD TREES; POLLARDING 

Old, weak, and neglected trees may be considerably revived 
and sometimes even renewed by pruning practices. The danger- 
ous wounds must be treated and general repairs be undertaken, 
as exx)lained in Chapter IV. Thereafter, a severe cutting-back, 
or "dehorning," may be given. 

Old apple trees are often brought into shape and condition 
again by the removal of several feet from the ends of long and 
pole-like branches. Fig. 204 shows two apple trees, forty to fifty 



186 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 




years old, three years after vigorous cutting-back. Side growths 
have started and the trees are beginning to bear acceptably. 
This treatment must be accompanied, of course, by good tillage, 
spraying, and other adequate care. If the orchard is very 
thick, part of the trees should be removed. 

Cutting-back to mere barren stubs is not to be advised in 
fruit-trees, except as a last resort. Fig. 205 shows such a case, 
of which Chandler writes as follows: "The tree has been de- 
horned in winter. Note the large amount of new gro^vth that 

has started out in the 
spring. When a tree has 
been injured in winter, 
or an old tree has become 
so weak that we want to 
renew its vigor, we can 
take advantage of the 
fact that the buds have 
been killed some whiter 
and cut it back. How- 
ever, cutting-back as much as this is never desirable. It will 
give us long dense growth, with slender whips. This wood looks 
healthy, but it is impossible to thin out enough of the twigs so 
that those left will have room to become stocky and strong 
without very seriously reducing the crop for the following sum- 
mer. If there is no thinning out of these shoots, we will get a 
tree with the branches long and slender and the fruiting wood 
only on the outer ends." 

The moderate cutting-back of old pole-branched peach trees 
often produces good results in the renewal of the tree; but 
usually it is better to gi-ow a new tree or to plant a new orchard. 
On the renovating process of cutting back old and neglected 
apple trees, Jarvis advises as follows for Connecticut (Bulletin 
No. 61, Storrs Experiment Station): "Most trees are too high 
and may be greatly improved by cutting back the upper 



204. 



The renewal of old apple trees by 
"dehorning." 



CUTTING-HACK OLD TUKKS 



187 



branches. A tree that ia 30 feet or over in height often may be 
Khortcned by 10 or 15 foot, and one between 25 and 30 feet 
often may be cut back to about 15 or 20 feet. The horizontal 
branches, as well as the upright ones, may be cut back to 
advantage;, especially with trees seriously lacking in vitaUty, 
and also those infesUid with scale. In heafling-back the upright 
branches, the cut is usually made just above a side branch that 
points outward. This tends to make the tree more spreading 
in habit. With trees 
thatfc, are naturally >^ >^ 

spreading and where a 
more upright growth 
is desired, the cutting 
may be done just be- 
yond an upright side 
branch. If this method 
is followed with all 
horizontal branches, a 
much stronger struc- 
ture will be the result. 
"Th(; severity of 
heading-in will depend 
largely upon the vigor 
of the tree. Nothing will start a tree into renewed vigor 
like severe pruning during the dormant season. The cutting- 
back, therefore, should be more severe with weakened trees. 
With moderately vigorous trees, there Ls danger of producing a 
rank growth in the form of watersprouts. If it is desirable to 
severely head-back such trees, it is better to do it gradually, a 
little each year, and withhold all nitrogenous fertilizers. A 
still better plan would be to remove about half of the required 
amount of brush during the winter, and the remainder during 
the growing season. The effect of summer pruning upon the 
vigor of the tree is just the opposite to that of winter pruning 




205. A cut-back peach tree. 



188 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



and will coimteract the stinuilating oilVct of tho latter. With 
most of tho nogloctoil orchards, howovor, tho vitality is so low 
that most of tlio pruning may bo dono, without fear of injury, 
during a singlo dormant soason. 

"Tho sovority of out ting-hack will also depend upon the 
presence of scale. The work of spraying is greatly simplified and 
the chances for success in controlling tlie scales are greatly 
enlumced by extreme methods of prunmg. 







200. Hoadins-iii. to show about tho usual proportion of cutting-back. 

"After the trees have been sufhciently headed-in, all dead 
and diseased branches should be removed, and also, such other 
branches as are necessary to produce a condition favorable to 
tho free circulation of air and tho admission of sunlight. While 
it is possible to overdo tho pruning process, especially with the 
best of neglected orchards, the average man is more likely to 
err in tho other direction." 

All tho foregoing is to bo sharply distinguished from tho ordi- 
nary heading-in which is designed merely to condense the top 



CUTTING BACK 



189 




207. PruninK-kriifc. 



and to restrain some of the most vigorous growths, and which is 
not a r(!ncwal process. Such h(;a<ling-in is illustrated in Fig. 200, 
the growing tree showing on the left and the suggested shorten- 
ing (the following winter or spring) on the right. 

Severe and syst(;matic cutting-back is sometimes prac- 
tised, particularly in Europe, on willows, poplars, and other 
rapidly growing trees, 
for the purpose of 
securing fagots, basket 
material, and other 
supplies. This prac- 
tice is known as pol- 
larding and the trees 
are pollards. Trees 
about summer -gar- 
dens, in parks and 
along streets, are 

sometimes regularly pollarded to provide dense shade, an effect 
of luxuriance, and a continuously symmetrical appearance. The 
linden and horse-chestnut lend themselves well to this treat- 
ment. The pollarding consists in cutting back the young growth 
each year to the main trunk or head, or to very short spurs. 




208. A good form of one-hand shears. 



PRUNING TOOLS 

The most essential pruning tools are three, a heavy knife (Fig. 
207), hand-shears (Figs. 208, 209, 210, 215), and a narrow saw 
(ase. Fig. 211). Aside from these types, there are various pat- 
terns of chisels and hooks and other devices, all of special appli- 
cation and many of them practically useless for serious work. 

Various characteristic pruning tools are shown in Figs. 207 
to 221. None of these is recommended, but the tools are shown 
for the information of the reader. Saws with teeth on both edges 
(a, d, Fig. 211) have the advantage of keeping longer in repair 



190 



SPKdFIC ADVICE 



and of allowing both iim^ and coarse work; but in crotches 
the saw is likely to injure the limb which it is tlesired to save, 
and pruners usually i)refcr tlie single-edged saw. The saw should 
have teeth of medium size and with a wide set. A slight curve 
to (he blade (as in a) allows the operator to make a very forcible 
draw cut with the concave side. The back-saw, c, is useful for 
small limbs and for grafting, for the stiff back allows the use of 
a thin plate and consequently of small teeth ; and the tool leaves 





20i). T\vo-h:uid pniiiinK-shoars 
for lijiht work. 



L'lO. Sin^nR two-haml pruning-shcars, 
for heavy work. 



a very smooth wound. Its tlisadvantage is that it is too broad 
to be worked in crotches and other crowded places, and the 
teeth are so small that the saw is likely to bind. Saw b is knowTi 
as an orange-tree pruner. The tool / is handy and efficient, 
notwithstanding its clumsy appeai-ance. The blade turns at 
both onils, allowing it to be used at any angle with reference to 
the frame and adapting it to the most constricted places. In 
the hands of most workmen, however, it is unsatisfactory. Tool 




211. Various pruuiiig tools. 



(191) 



1 92 



iypKtih'ii- .i/)» /(•/■; 



(; is a oombiujitiou o{ saw an«l chisol. U is inoimtinl o\\ a po\{\ 
ami (ho fhisol is t>piM-a(iHl \\'\\\\ a mallol struck on \\\c vwd oi 
(l»o hamllo. 'Pool // is also nunintiHl on a long haiuilc, ami is a 
ooinbiniition oi a saw and a sl\i>ar (oi^l. Long-handloii tools 
arc of ntinor valuo, }>ai(ii'ularl_v in oivhards, for (ho oporator 

slumiil bo vory oloso (o his woik. 
'Thoy aro usoful in takinji; ou( limbs 
hiMO ai\d (horo and for uso on orna- 
mon(al troos whioh aiv ditliouU (o 
flin\b. Tho \\'a(ors* (rot^-prunoi' — 
which is V(M\v usoful ior hoading-iu 
midying limbs^ — works upon tho 
principle of tho knifo in //, Fia;. 211. 
A tool i>f (ho san)0]M-im'iplo is shown 
in Kiii'. 212. ln\pK>n\i>n(s of sin\ilar 
dovico aiv shtnvn in I'igs. 213 mid 
211. 

A pruning ohisol is shown at </, 
Fij?. 211. Many poi'sons pivfor a 
ohisol booauso it allows (ho oporator 
to stand on tho iiro\md; but, as said 
above, siioh iniplomonts have only 
limitod iisos. A 2-inoh or 3-inch 
carjHaitor's ohisol n\ay bo mo\mtod 
on a stitT polo; or a oiiisol may bo 
niado from a larj;o tilo by a local 
blacksmith, and, in this case, a 
l\ook n\ay bo t"ormod on ono sido 
with which (o draw tho brush from (ho (roo. Small branches 
ma>- bo sovoivd by moans of a simplo thrust of tho tool, ami 
larii'o onos aro cut by striking tho ond of (ho l\andlo with a 
n\allot. Tools of this typo aro on tho n\arkot. 

Another tool with a chisol-liko odgo is sliowii in Fiii;. 21ti. 
This is an Furopoan tool, ami is used in iMiming foivsts. 




21-. DoiibK^lovor !»iui siiijiU^ 
lovor polo v^runor. 




< 




215. H' 




21'i. A v,i,<A tool 
for \\f;w\.\ii%-ui out- 
Btr'jt/ihifij? lirnF/rt an/J 
r';rriovinK K/ziall Kt.raiy 





217. \:)<:\AT()Wji>\>f:. 
(193) 



210, lirambkhook- 



194 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

Des Cars describes it as follows ("A Treatise on Pruning Forest 
and Onianicntal Trees," American edition, 22): ''The best tool 
for the purpose is one which has been used for many years in 
Holland, and which has lately been improved by Courval. It 
weighs two pounds twelve ounces to three pounds six oimces, 
or more, according to the strength of the workman [and is 16 
inches long]. The blade is reinforced in the middle to increase 
its strength and concentrate the weight. In the north of France 
this tool is generally hung to an u"on hook attached to a leather 
strap buckled round the workman's waist, who is thus left 
perfectly free in his movements." 

Another European device is the dendroscope (Fig. 217). 
This is used when it is desired to reduce the top of a large tree 
to a given fomi. A figure of the desired form is cut in a piece 
of cardboard, and a thread or wire is stretched across the opening 
from top to bottom. The operator holds the card before his 
eye, bringing the wire against the center of the trunk, and walks 
toward the tree until the bottom of the opening strikes the 
ground line. He can then make a mental note of the places to 
cut the branches in order to produce the desired outline. 

For removing the canes from bush-fruits (as raspberries, 
gooseberries), roses, and other shrubs, various hooks and spuds 
are useful. Three styles of these are sIioami in Figs. 218, 219. 

There are also devices for cutting the runners from straw- 
berry plants, one thrust of the implement leaving the hill in 
proper size and shape. One of these is represented in Fig. 220. 

A writer describes the following mask (Fig. 221) to protect 
the face while pruning: "I am pruning, and for the past few 
years have found great comfort in a mask over the face to keep 
off the sun and wind. It often makes the dift'erence between 
being able to stay at work or not during some days at this time 
of year. I wear spectacles, and to prevent the breath freezing 
on them use a stiffish wire hooked behind each ear and bent 
around close to the face, just clearing the eyes, and over the 



BURSlSa THE PRUNINOH 



195 



c«og> 



iC3 



rjowt; likii a Hpf^timtU* frame; on thi» w run a thick piece of cotton, 
covering the ru^i and fa<x} to thr; Ixjard, and short enougii notT 
to catch th(i breath. A rather kx>Be tape from the comers 
under the chin kf^ips the viind from get- 
ting under, and turning it up over the 
ay an." 

The foUowing device in which to bum 
the pniningH ifi described by Bahner ''see 
ali>f> Fig. '^67 in Chapter Xj : "A matter 
in c/mncA-Xion with pmning, and one 
which should always have the closest 
jitt<intion, i>5 thtat of gathering up the 
prunings. Thf:«e are oiUinihafnf-, the har- 
U>r of aphis e^s, and the eggs of other 
injurious wmiftijn, and if left lying on the 
ground Ux) long these 
eggs may hiatch and 
do a great amount of 
damage. Our practice 
iii to rake up the prunings into bunches and 
loarl them into a wagon, to be hauled away 
and burned. In parts of California where they 
have very large orchards, a kind of portable 
furnace is us^^J; this m a large sheet-iron 
receptacle mounted on four wheek, with an 
iron frame. In the center of the iron trough is a grate. On 
this a fire is light^irj, and the pmnings, having been previ- 
ously raked with a horsfj-rake into rows, are loaded on to this 
fire. A horsf; is hitched to this portable furnace, and the 
whole orchard gone over, the fire lx;ing kept up all the while. 
This hi said U) work well in vineyards, but may be too 
cumlxirsfjme for our Washington orchards. At all events, see 
to it that the prunings are bumwJ and the ashes returned to 
the orchard." 




2'2fi. Htrawberry pruner. 




221. Prumjig 
mask- 



196 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



REMARKS ON GIVEN PLANTS 



With the foregoing discussion in mind, we may now consider 
the appUcation to particular kinds of plants. Naturally we 
must confine this explanation to a few leading separate fruits, 
and to the ornamental plants as a group. 




222. A well-formed old apple tree 
for the eastern region, with open cen- 
ter (no continuing trunk). 



223. A well-formed old apple tree 
for eastern conditions, with the trunk 
or leader continvdng into the top. 



A'p'ple 

The apple tree is a vigorous plant, and should be pruned 
moderately every year. 

Pruning in late winter is the rule. Yet the apple tree, like 
other fruits, may be pruned in early spring or late autumn. 
The average height at which the limbs of apple trees are started 
is about 4 feet from the ground; but the height must be governed 
by climate, variety, and the personal desire of the grower. From 
three to five limbs should form the scaffold of the top. When the 
general form of the top has been well established — by three or 



PRUNING THE APPLE 



197 



four years of thoughtful attention — the subsequent pruning 
consists mostly in removing all superfluous limbs in the center 
of the top; that is, those that run crosswise 
the top, that rub other limbs, or that tend 
to make certain parts of the top too thick. 
Avoid pruning all the side branches from the 
main limbs, else these limbs will become too 
long and pole-like. There are no particular 
precautions to be observed in the pruning of 
an apple tree. 

Illustrations on preceding pages show 
stages in the pruning of apple trees. Others 
are given herewith. With Fig. 143, on page 
149, may be compared Fig. 222, representing 
an old tree of good form pruned on the open- 
center plan. With Fig. 144, may be compared the old tree with 
a more or less continuing trunk in Fig. 223 ; this illustration, as 
also Fig. 222, does not show the full spread of the branches. 
The pruning of apple trees to bush-forms, with systematic 




224. Bush-form 
apple tree that was 
headed-back to A, 
B, C. 





225. 



The growth of Fig. 224 
after two seasons. 



P^^F 



226. The growth of Fig. 225 
after one season. 



198 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 




227. A garden apple tree, after pruning. 



shortening of the annual or leading sluiots, is little practised in 
tliis country. Some of the special geometrical forms of training 
are explained in Chapter Ml; at this point we may examine 

bush - forms adapted from 
James Uilale's ''The Handy 
Book on Pruning," a recent 
English book. Fig. 224 is an 
Early Rivei-s apple, grafted 
on apple stock, hi the sprhig 
(April) of 1900 and cut back 
at A B C hi the late winter 
or spring of 1901; Fig. 225 
shows the groAvth at the end 
of 1902; and Fig. 226 at the 
end of 1903. Fig. 227 shows 
a Pott's Seedling apple tree 
after pruning, exhibiting the 
bush-Uke form, the many side branches, and the abundance of 
spurs. Planted m November, 1896, this tree produced two and 
three-fourths bushels of first-class apples in 1904. Such trees as 
this receive detailed attention year after year. 

Pear 

Pear trees are usually started lower than apple trees, at 
least than the orchard apple trees of the East in the past gen- 
eration. This is because the top tends to grow more upright, and 
therefore to be out of the way, and because the trunk is very 
liable to be injured by sun-scald. Three to 4 feet is the usual 
height of pear trunks for eastern conditions. The top should be 
thinned every spring (preferably before the leaves start); but 
heavy pruning should always be avoided, because it causes a 
quick growth and thereby exposes the tree to danger from 
fire-blight. Removing the fruit-spurs — which are very prom- 
inent hi the pear, persisting for several or many years — is a 



fH(JMS(J I'hAU AM J I'EAC.H 



19(i 



direct mearm of thinning the fniit, but it Hhould be employed 
witJi caution, if at all. It iw well Uj keep all spurK and Kprouts 
off tlje tfunk and t)je lower partH of the main limbH, for if bliglit 
attackij thfi«e shootH the disease is liable to run down into the 
trunk and cauwi irreparable flarnage. 

I'ear trt^js are rrjOKtIy narrow growers, and more framework 
branchfis may often be left than is advis*id for apple trees. (Fig. 
228.) The annual pruning, aftfir the tre/; is well startfid on 
its way, is small in ext<int, being confined to the removal of 
crowding and interfering branches. The trees are not trained 
Ui open hea/is. 

The paa/ih tisually bears on the shrxjts of 
the previous y(iar; therefore, heading-in thins 
the fniit, Heading-in also induces a growth of 
new shoots, and thereby may increase; the fruit- 
bearing woo<l. It Uin<hi to 
kw;p the head of the tree com- 
pact and to furnish the older 
branches with fruitful wood. 
On peach trees more than on 
most other orchard fniits, it is 
possible to practise something 
like a renewal of fruit-bearing 
shoots. Heading-in is also ad- 
vantagefjus in removing win- 
ter-injured twigs, and in main- 
taining a top well supplied 
with bearing shfxjts. Notwith- 
standing these advantages, 
heading-in of the peach Ls not 
necessary to abundant fruit- 
bearing. If heading-in is not 




li pea 



work branchfiS an; b';ini4 (\cX<:nniii<i(i 



200 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



practised, the chief attention to be given the tree — after the 
general frame-work of the top is fonned — is to trim out the 
^^•eak and dead interior wood by means of hand-sheai^s. This 
tine wood dies or becomes weak after bearing, and sliould be 
removed. 

In peaches, plmns, and apricots, which do not grow into 
tall trees, the bearing surface is kept low and well distributed 

in the head. 

The general form for a 
peach tree has already 
been discussed (Fig. 141, 
page 148; Figs. 180, 187, 
pages 172, 173); and the 
California practice of an- 
imal cutting-back is men- 
tioned on pages 136, 139. 
The pruning of a peach 
tree at young bearing age 
is illustrated in Fig. 229, 
redraAm from Chandler. 
"This sliows a good four- 
year-old tree in the 
Missouri Univei*sity Ex- 
periment Station orchard 
that has been shaped for an open head and clipped each year to 
make the Imibs stocky. This tree has been pnmed as it should 
be. Notice the healthy twigs coming out doA\ai to the fork in 
the tree. With such a tree much clipping-back can be done 
AAithout cutting away too much fruituig wood. If a tree had a 
dense head, the fruiting twigs would be on the outer ends, and 
this clipping could not be done without cutting away too many 
fruit-buds." 

While good results are secured with no heading-in, many 
growers think the profitable life and vigor of the tree are pro- 




229. Four-year-old peach tree pruned, for 
Missouri. 



PRUNING THE PEACH 201 

longod if this practice is systematically followed. Chandler and 
Knapp write as follows on the pnininf? of pear^h trees for New 
York conditions: "Since peach trees are plant^id not more than 
20 to 22 feet apart, there is no such advantage in pruning to 
s(;cure a tall trw; as there ifi in case of apples. W?ien the tree 
is five or six years old, it will virtually have but one level of 
bearing surface — through the upper part of the top. The trees 
should then be kept down trj such a heigPit that the fruit may 
be picked or the pruning done in the highest part of the tree 
from a stepladder not more than 4 or o feet high. The experi- 
encrf of the best growers everywhere indicates that the open- 
head syst<irn is best, that is, the cent<ir of the tree should be 
kept cut out. This gives a more complete renewal with healthy 
wood farther down on the main branchf^s than do other methods. 
It also keeps tlic; growth in such a position that pruning, sjjray- 
ing, and picking can be done conveniently." 

"It has usually been the custom in the spring following the 
first season's growth to prune back the new wood rather severely, 
and to repeat the process the next year. This treatment does 
not seem wLse under New York conditions: first, because such 
pruning makes the tree longer in coming into bearing; and 
second, because the tree is likely to grow too late during the 
second summer, making the wood very tender just above the 
surface of the soil and extremely subject to winter-killing. 
The more growth that is left in the spring, the more growing 
points there will be, and the earlier growth will cease. Finally, 
such pruning tfiuds to make the branches much too thick 
around the base of the tree." 

"It Is seldom necessary to do much pruning for the open 
head during the first two years. In the spring or the winter 
after the second or the third season's growth a limited amount 
of wood should be removed from the center of the tree. After 
the tree Ls five or six years old, and has come into full bearing, 
the center must be kept open at the top, and the branches should 



202 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



be cut back to prevent them from getting too tall. There are 
two methods by which this can be done. Some growers clip 
back all of the end twigs each year, removing from one-third 
to one-half of the preceding season's growth. Others think it 
better to pmne only the main branches and the larger side 




<^^^p§^sMii 




'"'f^y.-Wi:^ 



230. Bush-form of plum tree, before and after pruning. 

branches whenever they are growing out of reach. They are 
then pruned back to wood two or perhaps three years old, the 
cuts being made to strong side branches. This of course reduces 
the amount of pruning, and it seems to secure a better style of 
main branch and a more desirable open-head tree. It certainly 
reduces the amount of old wood near the end of the branch. 
The writers think that this is the better method. Many growers 
cut off all the growth from the base of the branches. No bene- 
fit comes from this practice, however, and when the tree is 
young it is harmful, since such growth may bear fruit with 
little or no strain on the tree." 

Plum, Apricot 

Most plum-growers prefer to start the top about 2}/^ to 33^2 
feet from the ground. If the top is to be sheared-in, it may be 



PLVM, APRICOT AND CHERRY 203 

started somewhat higher. Figs. 137 and 138 (pages 146, 147) 
should be contrasted with Fig. 139, as showing examples of 
headed-in and free-growing trees. The fruit is borne mostly on 
spurs, and simple heading-in is not a means of thuming. The 
Japanese and native varieties, however, often bear on the last 
year's shoots. 

Headmg-in is practised regularly on plums by many growers, 
particularly with the Japanese varieties, the shortening being 
to a fruit-spur in most cases. The fruit-bearing of plum trees 
is kept rather low in the head by this method. 

There is Httle attempt to secure an open-head form in plum 
trees, the top being kept uniformly thin enough to allow the 
fruit to color and to check the spread of the fruit-rot fungus. 
The bush-form of plum tree is shown in Fig. 231, after Udale 
(England). The pictures show a tree of the Monarch plum six 
years after planting. 

The apricot is treated in essentially the same way as the 
plum, but since some of its fruit is borne on the last year's 
shoots, heading-in may thin the fruit. See the discussion on 
page 136, for California conditions. 

Cherry 

Of cherries there are two marked groups, the sweet and the 
sour. The sweet cherry tends to make a strong leader, and in 
its early life to be pyramidal in form (Fig. 182). It is possible, 
and probably desirable, to restrain the tall habit, but heading- 
in as for peaches and plums is not often practised. Sour cherries 
require little attention to pruning after the framework is well 
estabHshed (Fig. 183), except to remove too crooked, crowded, 
and interfering branches. 

Of the pruning of the sweet cherry, G. Harold Powell writes 
as follows: **The cherry orchard will require little pruning after 
the first two or three years, and before that time the tree can be 
made to assume any desired form. I believe, however, that in 



204 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



general the j^nininj; slu)ulil 1h> .siich as to f;ive the tree a low, 
spreading head, with a trunk about 4 feet high, and with the top 
built out on three to five nitun arms. We have piu'sued this 
method on the Windsor and other varieties, and the trees, 
instead of growing in the usual spire-shape, assume an apple- 
tree fonn. After the fii^st two or three years no pruning is 
needed, except to remove deatl branches, and to keep sui)er- 
fluous branches from intercrossing. The advantages gained 
from this fonn of tree are of great importance. First, the body of 
the cherry tree is less likely to be injured from the hot sim, which 
causes it, especially on the side of the prevailing wind, to crack 
and split, exude sap, and finally to die. 
The low, spreading head shades the 
tnmk and large branches, and obviates 
this difficulty to a great extent. In 
westcMii New York this trouble is not 
so serious as it is on the black kmcls 
farther west. A second advantage, of 
equal or greater importance, lies in 
the fact tliat, if allowed to grow upright, 
the limbs reach the height of 30 to 40 
feet in twenty-five years, making it 
very difficult to gather the fruit and to spray the trees. The 
bearing branches are always found toward the extrenuties of 
the Ihnbs, and the time which men lose in going up and down 
long ladders is of no small account to the fruit-grower." 

Quince 

Quuice trees should be headed very low. Fig. 231 shows what 
may be regarded as good commercial trees. Some jiersons grow 
them to bush-form, but a distinct short trunk is generally to be 
preferred. The interior groAvth is thinned out each winter or 
spring, and if the growth is very heavy — say 18 to 30 inches on 
bt^aring trees — it may be headed-back, lleading-in tlmis the 




231. Quince troos. 



BRAMBLE FRUITS 205 

fniit, sinco tho flowers arc co-terminal; but cutting off all the 
tips generally removes txjo much of the fruit. The top Is kept 
ifuxh'saUtly thin. Care Ik to be tak(;n to prevent very strong 
gnjvvth, elwi danger of fire-blight is increased. 

BkLckberriea awl ra.rpberries 

Blat;kberries, raspberries, and dewberries bear on canes that 
gniw the jjreceding year, and, having borne once, these canes 
become; worthless. (Read page 45.) Pruning of these fruits con- 
sisti* (1) in removing superfluous shoots from the base of the 
plant, 80 that too many canes shall not grow (five or six to a 
plant usually being sufficient); (2) in hea<^ling-back the shoots 
wh(;n they reach the desired height, causing them to throw out 
laterals and to become stocky; (3) in heading-back these laterals 
(usually the next spring, before growth starts) ; (4) in cutting out 
the canes after tliey have borne (usually the following winter or 
spring, but should be performed, in general, soon after the 
fruit is offj. 

Of blackberries, the growing canes should be headed-in, 
— 2 to 4 inches of the tips cut off — ^when they are 23^ to 3 feet 
high. It will ha necessary to go over the plantation three or four 
timtjs for this purpose, as the different canes reach the desired 
height at different times. Laterals will now push out vigorously, 
but these are allowed to grow their full length. Early the follow- 
ing spring, these laterals are shortened. There is no rule respect- 
ing the proper length to leave these laterals. Sometimes they 
are injured by the winter, and must be cut-in short. And there is 
great difference in varieties in the way in which they bear their 
fruit; some kinds bear the fruit close to the cane, while others 
should be cut longer. Some varieties are variable in their habit 
of bearing fruit, and on such kinds some growers prefer to delay 
the pruning of laterals until the blossoms appear. From 12 to 
20 inches is the length at which the laterals are generally left. It 
must be remembered that these laterals are to bear most of the 



206 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



fruit; therefore it is important that they make a good growth, 
become well matured, and that the grower familiarize himself 
with the habits of different varieties. It is generally important 
that the heading-in of the main cane be accomphshed early, so 
that the laterals may make an early and hard growth, and that 
they may start rather low down on the cane and thereby pre- 
vent the cane from tipping over with its load of fruit. Black- 
berry bushes managed as here outlined will stand alone, without 
stakes or trellises. 

The bushes are sometimes kept from lopping by stretching a 
single wire along either side of the row, securing it to stakes 
which stand 2 or 3 feet high (Fig. 232) . Individual bushes in a 
home-garden may be supported by a rack, as suggested in Fig. 
233. Another form of support for raspberries and blackberries is 
shown in the outline (Fig. 234); light wooden strips of inch- 
square stuff are held up by stakes of the same material and 
rigidly attached to each other by cross-wires; these cross-wires 




232. Wire sup- 
ports for the sides 
of berry rows. 



233. Berry support 
for separate plants 



234. A beny support 
of wood, with cross- 



are the most important part of the whole, for they are con- 
stantly pulling the bushes up into close quarters — the one thing 
for which supports are desired. 

In some places, blackberries are trained on wires, after the 
manner of grapes as in Fig. 235. The two-wire trellis is generally 
preferred. The young canes are headed-in just above the upper 



BLACKBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES 



207 




235. Blackberry trellis. 



wire, and they are gathered in bunches in the hand and tied 
to the upper wire, where they will least interfere with the ripen- 
ing fruit. These canes may remain on the wires all winter, or 
they may be laid down for protection. Early the following 
spring, they are tied se- 
curely to both wires. This 
makes, therefore, one sum- 
mer tying for the young 
canes, and one spring 
tying for the bearing canes. 
Blackberries may also be ' 
tied to single stakes, , 
although the practice is 
scarcely advisable because 
the fruit is too much 
massed in the foliage. 

Many forms of supports 
may be employed, but those described here will suggest the 
problems involved. 

Black raspberries, or blackcaps, are usually headed-in when 
1^ to 2 feet high. It is important that this heading-back be 
performed as soon as the canes reach the desired height, for the 
laterals then start low and the bush becomes stout and self- 
supporting. The following spring the laterals are cut back to 12 
to 18 inches. Black raspberries are sometimes supported by 
wires (Fig. 232), but best results are usually secured when the 
plants are made to stand alone. 

Red raspberries are seldom headed-in during the growing 
season but otherwise they are treated like blackcaps. Fig. 236 
shows a cane (of Cuthbert) well pruned at the left, but the 
canes at the right are pruned too high and are top-heavy. Well- 
pruned blackcaps and blackberries have essentially the form 
of Fig. 237, which represents a blackcap and of which Chand- 
ler and Knapp write: "This plant has been pinched during the 



208 



SPECIFIC ADVICE 



sunmuM- Mhon nboiit 2 foot hiijli. Tlio bninohos hnvo boon 
cut baok in wintor as thoy should bo umlor avoraj^o oomlitions. 
Growors in humid oUniatos may tind it wiso to loavo tho branohos 
much loni2;or." 




•2;U>. \\oll prunoil (,k'ft)aiul poorly pruued 
rtnl raspberry. 



237. Well pruned blivok 
raspberry plant. 



The canes of dewberries are tied to stakes, disjiosoil on 
treUises (jvs on Fig. 235) , or tied to wire screen. A good method 
is to tie to stakes, alUnvhig three to six canes to each stake (Fig. 
238). 

Currant!^ and (jooscbcrrics 

The oauos of currants and gooseberries boar several times, 
but tho tirst two or three crops are tho best. It is thereforc 
desirable, after tho plants have oon\o hito boarhig. to cut out one 
or more of tho oUlost canes each year, antl to onci>urago as many 
new ones. The bush is consttmtly ronowod. If very i^lil canes are 
allowed to remain, tho fruit becomes small, tho bushes grinv too 
tall, and tho currant borer is encouraged. In Fig. 239, the old 
branching cane .s" should bo removed. At its left, two vigorous 
canes — one two seasons o\d and tho other one season old — are 
ready to take its place. When bushes make very strong and tall 
growths, the canes may be headed-back. 



CURRANTS 



209 
















•'■''^^^V'" 



2.'i8. Stake- trained dewberries. 



Currants. — The followinp; axJvico \h by Beach, Bulletin No. 95, 
N Y. Kxperi men t Station: "In large plantationsithaHljcen found 
moHt satisfactory to pcs- 
mit currants to grow in 
bush-form rather than in 
the tree-form, as the old 
canes may th(!n be re- 
moved whc!n they Ixjcomtj 
unproductive, a^ they do 
af t<^;r a f(;w years, and th(;ir 
places may be taken by 
new canes that have been 
pennitted to grow for this 
purj)ose. Then too, if the 
trunk of a currant in tree- 
form is broken off or 
injured in any way, a new 
plant must be set in its place, but when several canes are 
permitted to grow, as is the case when the plants are grown in 
bush-form, the accidental breaking of a trunk does not cause the 
death of the whole plant, but its place is readily filled by permit- 
ting other canes lo grow from the root. The tree-form is well 
adapted to well-cultivated gardens, as the plants may be pruned 
into more symmetrical, attractive shape as trees than as bushes. 

To grow currants in 

tree-form it is simply 

necessary to remove 

rry- 'i^r/:>v, ^^^ ^^u*^''* ^rom the 

Wfi^ $^^'- i^ P^^^ ^-*^ ^^ cutting 

^'^ '"^^^^^^^^i or layer that is put 

in the ground. This 

prevents the growth 

of shoots from below 

239. The currant bush. the SUrface of the 

N 



0m^y% 



■/^ 



.r>' 



210 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

soil, ana consequently no suckers are formed. The tree cur- 
rants may be kept in symmetrical shape by annually cutting- 
back the shoots of new wood, leaving but two or three buds to 
the shoot. This may be done at any convenient time while the 
leaves are off. 

"No definite rule can be given for pruning currants growTi 
in bush-form, for the kind and amount of pruning necessary is 
in each case determined by the condition and individual habits 
of growth of the bush to be pruned. In general, it may be said 
that during the first two or three years the bushes require but 
httle pruning except to head-back the new shoots so that fruit- 
spurs will develop all along the cane. Otherwise the fruit- 
bearing branches and fruit-spurs will be found mostly near the 
top of a long cane. When this is permitted, especially with 
some varieties, such as Fay, for example, the weight of the 
fruit is quite apt to bend the canes nearly or quite to the ground. 
Besides this heading-in to keep the bushes m shape, the pruning 
consists of removing the broken branches, or those that droop 
too closely to the ground, and removing the old wood after it 
has passed the age of greatest productiveness." 

For gooseberries, the following advice by Macoun ("Stand- 
ard Cyclopedia of Horticulture") represents good practice for 
American conditions: "As the gooseberry makes much more 
wood than it is desirable to leave, severe pruning is necessary. 
English varieties are usually trained to a single stem, but this is 
not necessary, although the freer circulation of air when trained 
in this way may help to prevent the spread of mildew. The usual 
custom in America is to grow the gooseberry in bush form. The 
bush should at first be brought into a good shape by leaving a 
few of the strongest shoots regularly distributed to make an 
open head. Five or six of these shoots are quite sufficient to 
leave at first. As the bush gets older, new shoots are allowed to 
grow to take the place of the older ones, as the pruning should be 
done with a view to having only vigorous bearing wood. Fruit 



GOOSEBERRIES 



211 



Is borne on year-old wood and from spurs on older wood. It 
usually is not desirable to have any wood more than three years 
old. The best time to prune i.s in the autumn or winter. The 
weakest young shoots should be cut off at the ground, ako all the 
stronger young shoots not required for fruiting or to take the 
place of the older branch(?s i/) be cut away. The side shoots 
from the older branches should l>e headefi-back or cut out 
altogether so as to maintain a fairly open head, making it as 
easy as possible to pick the fruit and yet leaving sufficient woofl 
to produce a gof^i crop and shade the f njit from the sun, as in a 
hot dry time gooseberries are liable to h)e injured by scalding. 
When branches are more than thrc^e years of age they should be 
removed to make way for younger wood. It Ls advisable to cut 
out all Vjranches which touch the ground as there will then be a 
Ixitter circulation of air, and the fruit 
will be kept off the ground. Goose- 
berries ^K\\\ often begin to Vjear the 
second year after planting, but there 
will not be a full crop until the fourth 
season. If the soil is kept in good condi- 
tion by an annual application of well- 
rotted barnyard manure in the autumn, 
harrowed in the following spring, and 
if the bushes are kept sprayed and well 
pruned, the plantation \vill not need 
to be renewed for many years." 

Tree forms. — For English conditions, Udale says that a 
well-formed and well-developed red currant should have 
"about nine main branches and be 4 feet or 4 feet 6 inches high. 
The branches will be so wide apart that the sun will shine upon 
the lowest leaves," and the bushes should bear along the whole 
length of the branches. "These branches will be of nearly equal 
height and strength, and will radiate from the main stem at 4 or 
6 inches above the ground," making a tree-like form with a very 




240. A red currant, pruned 
to tree-form. 




212 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

short trunk. Fig. 240 is his illustration of a plant so pruned, 

the letters and bars showing where pruning is to be performed, 

on one of the canes, in winter. This tree is headed-back in July. 

A gooseberry pruned to tree-form and trained on a trellis is 

shown in Fig. 241, from Udale, who writes (for England) : 'The 

right method of procedure is: firstly, 

to remove any branch that is too 

near the ground; secondly, to cut 

away any branch or branches that 

are crossing or interfering with other 

and rightly placed branches; thirdly, 

to cut back to a 'spur' 1 inch long all 

shoots that are not required to 

furnish the tree with young bearing 

, , wood. To express my meaning more 
241. Gooseberry trained on , , ,, i i i , i i , 

espalier or trellis, side-pruned clearly : the one-year-old shoots should 

to form spurs. ^^ j^f^ ^^ 5 ^^^^^ ^p^^^ ^jj ^^^^ ^j^^ 

tree, except at the center — which should always be kept open; 
all other young shoots should be cut back to within 1 inch from 
their base, to form spurs." (See Figs. 275-277, Chapter VII.) 

Hedges 

The beauty and value of hedges lie in the thickness of the 
growth, and in the uniformity from end to end. The plants 
should be set very close together, and the hedge should be sys- 
tematically and thoroughly trimmed every year from the first. 
It is best, in fact, to trim the hedge two or three times in the 
season, to prevent too great and straggly growth of any one 
plant or any one branch. The practice of cutting down the 
hedge severely in winter, and then not touching it again until 
the following winter, results in a heavy growth that makes the 
hedge look ragged and unkempt in summer, and that also 
increases the difficulty of bringing the hedge under subjection. 

The hedge should be trimmed in winter, and also two 



HEDGES 213 

or three times in summer. The season is immaterial, so long as 
strong growths are kept down and the hedge is maintained in 
uniform shape and condition. The operator must first decide 
on the shape of hedge he desires, whether conical-topped, round- 
topped, or flat-topped, and then work to that pattern. The form 
should be blocked out very early in the life of the hedge — in 
fact, just as soon as the plants begin to grow thick enough to 
form a wall. This form can be maintained year by year; but 
the hedge mil necessarily rise a little in height every year, at 
lej^t until the plants have grown several years and the vigor has 
begun to be checked by the continuous trimming and the crowd- 
ing of the roots and perhaps, also, by the maturity of the plants. 
To make hedges impenetrable to pigs and other animals, the 
plants are often plashed when young. This consists in bending 
the main shoots over to an oblique or diagonal position, and 
wiring them down, one plant bending over the following one. 
Plants to be plashed are usually set at an angle when trans- 
planted to their permanent positions. Deciduous-leaved and 
thorny plants, as osage orange, are generally used in this coun- 
try for the making of pig-tight hedges. 

Shade-Trees. (See page 88.) 

When shade-trees are once well established, they usually 
need no attention in pruning except to remove broken or dying 
parts, to cut off limbs that hang too low, and to correct any 
tendency toward unshapely growth. When planted, the shade- 
tree, if well branched, should be pruned in essentially the same 
way as apples and pears. Very yoiuig trees well supplied with 
buds on the main axis may be cut to a whip, but the common 
practice of chopping large trees into the form of bean-poles is 
to be discouraged. 

It is on shade- and street-trees that most of the "tree sur- 
gery" is practised; and this subject is separately discussed in 
Chapter IV. 



214 



SFKCIFIV Al>\ ICb' 



ORNAMENTAL TUEKS AND SHRUBBERY 

Thivo objects aiv iiivolvod in tho pruuinji oi ovwmwcxW'A 
tiws ai\d slirvilv?: {^D To punivu'o a givon dosiivil form, {'2) to 
oauso the plants to develop strong and uniform foliage, i^;>) to 
encourage tlower-buds. 

The desired form is secuivd by shearing, the luxuriant and 
continuous foliage by cutting back rampant growths anii 
thereby encoiu'aghig a uniform development of the ditYerent 
parts of the plant, and the tlower-buds by giving atteutimi to 
the tlower-lxwring habit of the particular plant in question. 
The priu\er should know whether the flowers are borne on the 
ends of terminal or lateral shoots of the season, or on the ends ov 
sides of last year's shoots. The reader will tind a discussion of 
these contrasts in Chapter II, beguniing page -U>. 

The general principle to be followed in the pruning of orna- 
mental shrubs and trees is to allow aud even to aid the plant to 



■0^5^' 







242. Poor lit Uo tailored bushes. 



HHKAfiKff liUHflKH 



215 



Tmsmif'. ite natural \<mu wtnK t/> ^invulff) ito cJiaraijterkti/; beauty. 
To t^iws tmfi, tiui plitfit w la;;pt in a \itt^i\iy and vw^r^iit <x>n- 
rjjti//ri, ari/J r;nly dw^sw^jrj, inUfrferini^ <fr mm^tstfUiri y^(mX\iK are 




! 






<^ 



'Ai'A. A \/tuh that d'r-; 



^rin^h are f'jf^jxn. r. m which tJjr; tre<r« and 

tihmYm arc traiwjri and ai^u^rtA into dfifmiUi formal «ha|¥«, a* in 
U/fiiary work, much a« WJi^r* are kept in forrn only with more 
<-jfuUwuffiH and <;ixr(^n\ attentir/n. In fonoixl gaFJ/n^iin;?, it rniiy 
bf; TUfCjimixry to introrhice plant forrni'. ^/f fifSmU: kind*, pr^^f- 
erahly Huch a« naturally aj»$iiniie tli*; (iaainA nYtixj)*: but »^>me- 
tim/« with the aid ^>f tiie prunfjr. TTie m/;rit '>f the mMytctM, in 
thin ca>i*?, li/« in thieir regiilarity and in thi/; <y>mpl/^/^j*^ with 
which they carry out a c/dLndnX (U^(/^ and c/mtn\fliU: to an 
artistic iiannony, lli*; nnh'yv(^M a/e rer^uir^;^! for form and foliage 



216 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

rather than for bloom. The conifers and certain broad-leaved 
evergreens are usually employed for this purpose. 

Other than in this formal gardening, under the direction of a 
person of taste, the shearing of bushes is an abomination. Fig. 
242 (from life, not from nature) shows a graceless and painful 
mutilation of bushes that had eveiy right to decent treatment. 
These poor shrubs are neither one thing nor the other, and their 
only expression is the reflection of the shocking taste of the man 
who wielded the shears. Rather than to have such deformed 
objects in a landscape, it were better to root them out and let 
the place grow up to briers and burdocks, in which case the 
plants would at least exhibit the beauty of their kind. With 
these ugly objects, compare the graceful lines of the bush showTi 
in Fig. 243, which by an intelligent and sympathetic grower has 
been allowed to mature into its natural expression. 

Pruning roses 

Roses represent many fundamental species, differing widely 
in habit, and therefore different pruning treatments are required. 
In the case of shrubby roses, the flowers are produced on shoots 
from the old wood; in most of the large-flowered garden roses, 
the bloom arises from new wood that may spring from the 
crown or from strong canes of the previous year. Several 
strong vigorous and healthy canes are required on each plant 
if the best results are to be secured. 

Dwarf-growing Hybrid Teas should have the pruning 
deferred until the buds begin to swell, for at that time it is 
easier to distinguish the dead and weak wood. Another reason 
for delay is the advantage of leaving the mulch undisturbed 
until the weather is more settled. Before pruning, one must 
decide what kind of crop is wanted. If the largest and finest 
flowers are sought, the plants must be thinned and pruned 
severely; but if a large quantity of bloom is preferred, as in 
growing roses for garden effects, more and longer shoots are 



ROSES 217 

left. Pruning these and other roses consists of two opera- 
tions — thinning or the removal of dead, weak, or superfluous 
canes, and pruning or cutting back the remaining canes. The two 
operations should be performed in the order given. Unfor- 
tunately in some sections the cold winters do not leave much 
choice for the grower of Hybrid Teas, but it is well to know that 
the amount of pruning a variety will stand depends upon the 
character of the plant. In general, the weak-growing varieties 
can be pruned more heavily then the strong-growing varieties. 
The advice to prune hard, moderately hard, medium, or sparingly 
may be outlined as follows: Hard. — Thin out all but three to five 
canes or shoots, and prune these back so as to leave two to 
three eyes on each shoot. Moderately hard. — Thin out all but 
three to five canes and cut back to five to ten eyes. Medium. — 
Thin out to four to seven shoots and cut back one-half this 
length. Sparingly. — Thin out to four to seven shoots which 
should have the extreme tips cut off. When high quality is not 
sought, the canes may be left pruned to a greater length. 

The Hybrid Perpetual roses may be grown for bush effect, 
bearing many roses of medium size, or for large specimen 
blooms. In the former case, four to six canes may be left to 
each young crown or plant, and these may not be cut back 
shorter than 2 to 3 feet high (unless winter-injured) ; of course, 
all weak canes should be removed, cutting them out at the 
surface of the ground. When relatively few large flowers are 
desired, fewer canes may be retained at first and these should 
be cut back to 1 foot high or less, heading back to a strong bud 
on the outside of the cane so that the new growths will spread 
and give all parts the best exposure to sunlight. If the plants, 
in either case, are kept well fertilized, sprayed, and strong, the 
number of canes may increase from year to year, particularly 
if plenty of room is given. After blooming, the vigorous shoots 
are shortened, so that strong new canes may be secured for 
the next season. 



218 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

The Pemetianas are best when thinned and only sparingly- 
pruned. Polyanthas or Baby Ramblers usually require only 
the removal of the clusters of hips or seed-pods. The Rugosas, 
Moss, Gallicas, and hardy yellow roses need only the old and 
dead wood cut out, and any long canes may be pruned back to 
make a symmetrical plant. The climbing roses need little atten- 
tion except to keep them within bounds; relatively few canes 
should be started in the first place, and they should be well spaced 
on the trellis. From time to time the old and weakened canes 
should be removed. If Wichuraianas and Ramblers are pruned, 
it should be done after flowering instead of in the spring. 

PRUNING-LIST OF HARDY NORTHERN TREES, SHRUBS, AND 
WOODY VINES, ORNAMENTAL IN FLOWER OR FRUIT 

By Ralph W. Curtis 

Most of our hardy trees and shrubs require no special pruning when grown 
for ornament; they are allowed to take their natural form and to assume 
their normal habit. This fact should be emphasized strongly at the outset. 
The idea is far too prevalent that every shrub must be pruned or trimmed like 
a garden rose or a California privet hedge. It is true that many deciduous 
trees and shrubs require the knife now and then, and also that a few of 
them are better if pruned considerably every year. In general, however, 
it is far better not to prune at all than to mutilate heavily once a year. A 
Httle care to remove unsightly fruit-clusters, broken, winter-killed or diseased 
wood, suckers, and other unnecessary or offending parts is all that is needed. 
If a plant is normal in health and natural in form it will be satisfactory 
in flower and fruit. Some plants are more satisfactory than others when 
left to themselves. It is much better for a planter to exercise judgment and 
taste in the first choice of his plants than annually thereafter to demon- 
strate his skill and precision in the art of trimming and shearing. 

In the following pages is given a long list of recommendable trees and 
shrubs for ornamental use, particularly in the northeastern states; and 
this hst is marked with special reference to pruning. 

In the group requiring occasional priming, the sole object should 
be to improve the general vigor and form of the plant. The pruning should 
be more a process of thinning-out than cutting-back. All dead, weak, and 
superfluous wood should be removed, also all cross branches that are 
injuring each other, and bad forks that develop low down in young trees. 



ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES 219 

The whole proceeding should be tempered by a feeling of restraint as well 
as by a sense of neatness. It should be performed promptly as needed, 
perhaps a Uttle each year, with the reahzation that it is much easier to 
prevent an injury or a mistake than to remedy it afterward. 

There are cases, however, in which regular pruning is justified. Many 
plants have bright-colored twigs that lose their winter attractiveness as 
they grow old. Such plants are the red-, yellow- and green-stemmed 
dogwoods (cornus), the Scotch broom {Cytisus scoparius), the globe-flower 
(Kerria japonica), the small native rose {Rosa , nitida) , the blackcap 
raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) , and the red- twigged willow {Salix 
alba var. britzensis). These plants may be cut to the ground every two 
or three years. In this case, of course, they will not flower or fruit the 
first year. A better method is to practise a constant renewal, a few of the 
old stems being gradually replaced by new ones. This renewal practice 
contributes to the welfare of the whole plant and maintains the top or 
head in good vigor and form because it is being gradually renewed all 
the time. 

With two possible exceptions, gradual renewal is the only system of 
pruning permissible with the well-known plants that have ornamental fruits. 
This is because large number and not individual size is more attractive in 
ornamental fruits. These exceptions are callicarpa and Sambucus canadensis. 
They are the only important plants having ornamental fruits that may be 
benefited by annual pruning, since they are simamer-flowering; they may 
be winter-pruned any time before growth starts. Callicarpa is tender in 
the northern states and usually needs cutting back heavily or entii-ely to 
the ground every spring. Sambucus canadensis, however, reaUy needs 
very httle pruning except gradual renewal, thinning out crowding or un- 
necessary wood, or moderate cutting back to improve neatness of form. 

As stated, a few plants are better when pruned considerably every year. 
This is because of some individuality of growth. These plants are all 
marked with a dagger (t) in the following fist, and each is accompanied by 
an explanatory note. Other plants in this list do not require pruning, 
except to improve general vigor or form as already explained, to secure 
new growth of bright-colored twigs or, lastly, to provide gradual renewal 

The following Ust of plants is classified into two groups according to 
the time of bloom: the first group is the early- or spring-flowering group, 
and the second group the late- or summer- and autumn-flowering group. 
The former blooms before growth starts in spring or very soon thereafter; 
the latter blooms after growth starts or even late in its growth. 

The first or early-flowering group is marked with an asterisk (*), and 
may be pruned (if necessary) immediately after the bloom is past. This 



220 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

is called summer-pruning, although the time for performing it is May 
or June. Forsythia, lilac, and Spirsea Vanhouttei are examples of this 
group. The bloom on these plants comes from flower-buds already devel- 
oped on last year's wood. If this old wood is cut off before the flowers 
appear in spring, there will be no bloom until the plant has had another 
year for growth and the formation of another set of flower-buds. The Scotch 
broom (Cytisus scoparius) is an exception. This is not an early-flowering 
plant, and yet it comes into the above summer-pruning group. It blooms 
in summer (late June and July) and should not be pruned untU after the 
bloom is past, because the flowers appear on the old wood of last year and 
not on the new growth made in May and June. 

The second or late-flowering group is marked with two asterisks (**) 
and may be pruned (if necessary) at any time before growth starts in spring. 
This is called winter-pruning. Hibiscus syriacus and Hydrangea paniculata 
are examples of this group. These plants may be pruned much or little 
in early spring without danger of removing flower-buds, because they do 
not bloom on the old wood. They first make new twig-growth, on which 
the flowers appear later in the season. Yet, it is probably better not to 
prune either of these plants except to remove imsightly fruit-clusters or 
to keep the plant within boimds or in good healthy condition, unless, in 
the case of hydrangea, one desires a few very large trusses of bloom. Both 
of them may be pruned heavily and yet make vigorous foUage and 
very large flowers; but it might be better to plant smaller-growing shrubs 
which do not need to be restrained, and reserve the hibiscus or hydrangea 
for a more suitable location. To many persons, the coarse habit and huge 
snowball-like flower-clusters produced by Hydrangea paniculata var. gran- 
diflora when treated in this way are not as attractive as the normal plant 
in usual bloom, properly set off by surrounding masses of green foUage. 

There are 335 plants in the following Hst, but only 30 of these are 
really benefited by regular annual pruning. 

fbefore a name means the plant is improved by pruning. 

*before a name means the plant is early or spring-flowering, and (if necessary) 
should be summer-pruned, i.e., pruned immediately after blooming. 
**before a name means the plant is late, i.e., summer- or autumn-flowering, 
and (if necessary) should be winter-pruned, i.e., pruned any time before 
growth starts in spring. 
E before a name means plant is evergreen. 
S before a name means plant is semi-evergreen. 

E**AbeUa grandiflora (requires protection in Boston). 
*Acanthopanax pentaphyllus (Five-leaved Araha). 
Acer (Maple). 
* platanoides (Norway Maple). 



ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS 221 

*Acer rubrum (Red or Swamp Maple). 

* saccharum (Sugar, Hard, or Rock Maple). 

Maples may be pruned only in full leaf. The best time is 
early September. If cut in fall or spring, the sap will flow so 
freely that it will be impossible to paint the wounds. 
jEscuIus 

* camea var. Briotii (Red-flowered Horse-chestnut, or Buckeye). 

* Hippocastanimi (Horse-chestnut). 

** parviflora {Pavia macrostachya) (Dwarf Buckeye). 

Althffia, Shrubby. See Hibiscus. 
E*Alyssimi gemonense. 

Amelanchier 

* canadensis (Shad-bush, or Juneberry). 

* laevis (Shad-bush, or Jimeberry). 

* oblongifoha {A. dbovalis). 

* sanguinea. 
Amorpha 

I** canescens (Lead-plant). 

t** fruticosa (False or Bastard Indigo). Loose-growing shrub. 
Cut back annually to improve form. 
*Ampelopsis heterophylla. 
E*Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi (Bearberry). 
Aronia (Pyrus). 

* arbutifoUa (Red Chokeberry). 

* melanocarpa (Black Chokeberry). 
Azalea. See Rhododendron. 

S**Baccharis halimifoUa (Groundsel Tree). Cut off the old fruit- 
clusters in winter or spring. The ornamental value of this 
plant Ues largely in the white pappus. 
*Benzoin sestivale (Spice-bush). 
Berberis 

* dictyophylla. 
E* Sargentiana. 

* Thunbergii (Japanese Barberry). 
E* verruculosa. 

* vulgaris (Common Barberry). 
Broom. See Cytisus. 
Buckeye. See ^Esculus. 
Buckthorn. See Rhamnus. 

t**Buddleia Davidii {B. variabilis) var. magnifica (Summer Lilac). 
Plant is tender North. Cut back heavily, even to the ground. 



222 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

Callicarpa 
** japonica. 
** purpurea. 

Callicarpa is tender and usually needs cutting back 
heavily or entirely to the ground in early spring. 
*Calycanthus (Butneria) fertilis (Sweet Shrub, or Carolina All- 
spice). 
tE**CaUuna vulgaris (Scotch Heather). This succeeds best in the 
United States if kept continually renewed and in vigorous 
condition by heavy annual pruning. 
Campsis. A coarse rank-growing plant, often tender in the North. 
Cut back considerably in early spring. 
t** radicans (Trumpet-creeper). 
** radicans var. speciosa. 
*Caragana arborescens (Pea Tree). 

* frutex. 

* pygmsea. 
Catalpa 

** hybrida (Teas' Hybrid Catalpa). 

** ovata (C. Kaempferi). 

** speciosa (Western Catalpa). 

Ceanothus 
** americanus (New Jersey Tea). 
** hybridus. Prune to the ground. 

*Celastrus scandens (Climbing Bittersweet). 
**Cephalanthus occidentalis (Button-bush). 

*Cercis canadensis (Red-bud, or Judas Tree) 
Chsenomeles 

* japonica (Japan Quince). 

* Maulei. 

E or S *Cham£edaphne calyculata (Leather-leaf) 
Cherry. See Primus. 
Chionanthus 

* virginica (Fringe Tree, or White Fringe). 
*Cladrastis lutea (C tinctorid) (Yellow-wood). 

Clematis 
** apiifolia. 
** Henryi. 
t** Jackmanii. Not perfectly hardy North; needs some cutting 

back, 
t** Jackmanii var. alba. 



ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS 223 

*Clematis montana, in variety. 
S** paniculata (Japanese Clematis). 
** tangutica. 

** texensis (C Vioma var. coccinea). 
** virginiana (Virgin's Bower). 
**Clethra alnifolia (Sweet Pepper-bush). 

t*Colutea arborescens (Bladder Senna). This plant breaks very 
easily and usually needs repairing early in spring. It begins 
flowering in June and continues into July. After flowering, 
prune moderately to renew old stems and to secure neater 
form, thus lessening the danger from breaking. Remove 
fruits as soon as they become dry and unsightly. 
Cornus (Dogwood) 

* alba (Red-stemmed Dogwood). 

* alba var. sibirica (Siberian Dogwood). 

* alternifoUa (Alternate-leaved Dogwood). 

* Amomum (C. sericea) (Silky or Purple-stemmed Dogwood). 

* rugosa (C. circinata) (Round-leaved Dogwood). 

* florida (Floweriug Dogwood). 

* florida var. rubra (Pink Dogwood). 

* mas (Cornehan Cherry). 

* paniculata (C candidissima) (Panicled or Gray-stemmed Dog- 

wood). 

* sanguinea var. viridissima (Green Dogwood). 

* stolonifera (Red Osier Dogwood). 

* stolonifera var. flaviramea (var. lutea) (Yellow Dogwood). 
*Cotinus Coggygria (Smoke-bush). 

Cotoneaster 

E* adpressa. 

S* Franchetii. 

* horizontalis. 
E* microphylla. 

* racemiflora. 

* Simonsii. 

* tomentosa. 
Crataegus (Thorn). 

* arkansana 

* coccinea. 

* Phsenopyrum (C. cordata) (Washington Thorn). 

* Crus-gaUi (Cockspur Thorn). 

* nitida. 



224 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

*Crat8egus Oxyacantha (English Hawthorn). 

* Oxyacantha var. Paulii (Paul's Double Red Thorn). 

* punctata. 

* tomentosa. 

*Cydonia oblonga (Common Quince). See Quince, pp. 42, 204. 
Cytisus 

* hirsutus. 

S** scoparius (Scotch Broom). This is more or less tender and 
may need dead tips cut back after growth starts in spring, 
but it should not be pruned any more than this until after 
it is through blooming in July because its flowers appear on 
last year's wood. 
Daphne. 

E* Cneorum (Garland Flower). 

* Mezereum. 

* Mezereum var. alba. 

Deutzia. For deutzias in general, practice gradual renewal, thin 
out crowding stems and cut off old flowers. D. scabra is 
usually somewhat tender North, and may need to have dead 
and injured wood taken out in spring. 

* gracihs. 

* Lemoinei. 

t* scabra var. flore-pleno. 

t*Diervilla hybrida (Weigela, or Diervilla). Coarse-growing shrubs 
that are made neater by annual pruning. Cut back the wood 
that has just flowered, thus removing unsightly seed-pods; 
also practise renewal of old stems. 
*Dirca palustris (Leatherwood). 
Dogwood. See Cornus. 
Elaeagnus 

* angustifoUa (Oleaster, or Wild Olive). 

* multiflora. 
Elderberry. See Sambucus. 

*Enkianthus perulatus. 
E*Epigaea repens (Trailing Arbutus) . 

Erica. 
E* carnea (Hardy Spring Heath). 

E* carnea var. alba. The foliage of this spring-blooming heath is 
glossy green and the flower-buds are conspicuous all winter. 
E** Tetralix. The foliage of this summer-blooming heath is grayish 
and no flower-buds are visible in winter. 



ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS 225 

Evonymus 

* alata. 

* americana. 

* Bungeana (Spindle-tree). 

* europaea (European Spindle-tree). 

* obovata (Running Strawberry-bush). 
E* radicans. 

E* radicans var. vegeta. 
*Exochorda grandiflora (Pearl-bush). 
Forsythia (Golden-bell). 

* suspensa. 

, * suspensa var. Fortunei. 

* viridissima. 
*Fothergilla major. 

*Gaylussacia baccata (G. resinosa) (Black Huckleberry). 
t**Genista tinctoria (Woadwax, Dyer's Weed, or Greenweed). 
Prune to the ground. 
Grape. See Vitis, and p. 43 and Chapter VIII. 
*Halesia (Mohrodendron) Carolina. 
**Halimodendron halodendron (Salt Tree). 
Hamamelis 

* japonica var. arborea (Japanese Witch-hazel). 

* mollis. 

* vernalis. 

** virginiana (Witch-hazel). 
Hawthorn. See Crataegus. 
Hazel. See Corylus. 
Heather, Scotch. See Calluna. 
Heather, Hardy Spring. See Erica. 
**Hibiscus syriacus (Rose of Sharon or Shrubby Althea). 
S*Hippophae rhamnoides. Sexes are separate and fruiting plants 
must be secured. See Rhamnus. 
Horse-chestnut. See .^sculus. 
Hydrangea. 
t** arborescens. Cut back rather heavily every year. 
t** arborescens var. grandiflora (var. steriUs) (Hills of Snow). 
Loose habit much improved by heavy pruning. Cut to the 
ground. 

* Bretschneideri. 

** paniculata var. grandiflora (Common Hardy Hydrangea). 
** paniculata var. prsecox. 



226 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

*Hydrangea petiolaris (Climbing Hydrangea), 
t** quercifolia (Oak -leaved Hydrangea). Plant is tender and 
should be pruned to the ground. Excellent for low foliage 
mass. 
t**radiata. Treat same as H. arborescens. 
Hypericvun 
** aureum (Golden St. John's-wort). 
** Buckleii. 
E** calycinum (Aaron's Beard). 
** prolificum (Shrubby St. John's-wort). 
E*Iberis sempervirens (Evergreen Candytuft). 
E*Tenoreana. 

Ilex. Sexes are separate. Fruiting plants must be secured. 
E* crenata (Japanese Holly). 
E* crenata var. microphylla. 

* decidua. 

E* glabra (Inkberry). 

E* opaca (American or Christmas Holly). 

* verticillata (Winterberry). 
t**Indigofera Kirilowii. Prune to the ground. 

Judas Tree. See Cercis. 
Juneberry. See Amelanchier. 
Kalmia. 
E* angustifoUa (Sheep Laurel). 
E* latifolia (Mountain Laurel). 

t*Kerria japonica (Globe-flower). The tips of the twigs are often 
winter-killed, and the injured parts should be removed in 
early spring. 
**Koelreuteria paniculata (Varnish Tree). 
Laburnum. 

* alpinum (Scotch Laburnimi). This is more hardy than the 

following. » 

* vulgare (Golden Chain). 
Laurel. See Kalmia. 

E*Leiophyllum buxifolium (Sand Myrtle). 

t**Lespedeza bicolor. Cut back moderately to improve neatness of 

form. 
E*Leucothoe Catesbsei. 
Ligustrum 

* Ibota. 

* Ibota var. RegeUanum. 



ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS 227 

St*Ligustrum ovaUfoUum (CaUfornia Privet). This plant is not 
hardy and often needs to be cut back heavily in spring, 
sometimes even to the ground. 
S* vulgare (Common, EngUsh, or European Privet). 
Lilac. See Syringa. 

Locust, Common or Black. See Robinia. 
Lonicera. 

* bella. 

* bella var. rosea. 

* caerulea. 

* canadensis. 

, S* fragrantissima. 

** Heckrottii. 

S** Henryi. • . 

S** japonica var. HalUana (L. Halliana). 

* Maackii. 

* Morrowii. 

** Periclymenum. 

* Ruprechtiana. 

* spinosa (L. Albertii). 
** sempervirens. 

* Standishii. 

* tatarica (Tartarian Honeysuckle), 

* tatarica var. splendens. 

* thibetica. 
Lycium. 

S** chinense (Chinese Matrimony Vine). 
S** halimifoUum (L. vulgare) (Matrimony Vine). 
Magnoha. 

* Alexandrina. 

* denudata {M. conspicim, M. Yulan). 

S** glauca {M. virginiana) (Sweet or Swamp Bay, or Laurel 
Magnolia). 

* Lennei. 

* Soulangeana. 

* stellata (Starry Magnolia). 
Mahonia 

E* AquifoUum (Oregon Grape). 
E* japonica. 
E* repens. 

Maple. See Acer. 



228 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

Mock Orange. See Philadelphus. 
Mountaiii-.\sh. See Sorbiis. 
S*MjTica caroUnensis (Baybern.', or Candlebem'). Sexes are sep- 
arate and truiting plants must be secured. This is known 
commercially as M. cerifera, and imtil recently two forms 
have both been included under that name. 
*Nemopanthus mucronata. 
*Ne^'iusia alabamensis. 

Oleaster. See Elieagnus. 
**Ox>-dendrmn arboreum (Sorrel Tree, or Tree Andromeda). 
*Pieonia suffruticosa (Tree Peony). 
Parthenocissus. 

* quinquefoUa (Five-leaved !%•>•, Virginia Creeper, or Woodbine). 

* tricuspidata var. Yeitchii (Boston or Japanese hry). 
Pa%"ia. See .Esculus. 

Peach. See Primus. 

Philadelphus. Prime same as Deutzia. 

* coronarius (SjTinga, or Mock Orange). 

* inodorus. 

* pubescens, Souvenir de BUlard. 

* grandiflorus (P. latifolius, or P. pubescens). 

* Lemoinei. 
*Photinia %-Lllosa. 
*Ph>-socarpus opulifoUus (Ninebark). 

Pieris. 
E* floribunda. 
E* japonica. 

* mariana (Stagger-bush). 
Plum. See Prunus. 
Potent Ula 

* fruticosa var. Yeitchii. 
S* trident at a. 

Privet. See Ligustrum. 
Prunus 
E Laurocerasus var. Schipkaensis. 

* maritima (Beach Pliun). 

* subhirtella var. pendula (Weeping Japanese Cherrj')- 

* Persica var. flore-pleno alba (Double WTiite Peach). 

* Persica var. flore-pleno rubra (Double Red Peach). 

* punula (Sand Oherrj'). 

* serrulata and Lannesiana (Japanese Cherry). 



OBSAMENTAL TREEH AND HHRUBH 229 

Pruntw tofw^-nt/jBa. 

iri\(At& var. flryre-pktio (VUfVfuring Aimood). 
*PyniJ! fAppJ/;, Crah-Apple, P<iary. 
arbiitifolia, Bfjf; Arooia. 

* piilf&iftmuiii (F. p/rUjurtda) i¥\ov/*mmi Crab). 

* llsiUhuiix (p. Purknuxniij. 

* itji^nHW., B<ix:hV;l'H Crah. 

Maul/;i. fv^f; Cljiftnrym'rl/«, 

mr;larirx;arf^. S'?'; Axonia. 

vulgari>;. H^jf; Cydc/nia. 
Vj^iAnui. Ht:(t Orci». 
*RhdiimiiH cathartixia. 
Rhododendron 

* (AxAUiHj art>ore«cen«, 

E* arbtitifolium ''fiJ. W^'tisonM). 

* (AzaJfta; caLcDdubiC/ium (Flame Azalea,). 

E* carolinkntim (fi, [fli^rui/iium in part). A loir, oompact 
Rhodorkn/iron native to the high mfwitaim of North Carr>. 
Una, with broa^i leaves and early flowers in late May before 
the new Umvefi appear. 

E* catawbienjse. 

E* ('Azalea; Hinodigiri. 

E* hybrids. 

* (Azalea; Kaxanpferi (Japanese Azalea). 
E* maximum. 

* (Azalea; mucronulatum, 
E* rnyrtifolium. 

* ^Azalea; nurliflorum (Vmkst/ar Wmer, or WM Hooeymdkie). 

* (^Azalea; \'a>jeyi, 

♦Rhodotypoft kerrioides (VMiite Kerria). 
Ribf*. Bee p. 208, C'ljirrantg and gootseherries. 

* alpinum (^Mountain Currant). 

aureum Cfi. otb/rnium) (Buffalo, FUnrering^ or Miwouri Cur- 
rant;. 

* pinetorum- 
Robinia 

* Yibipida. (Roue Acacia). 

* KelseyL 

* Peeudacacia (Common or Black Loea«t). 



230 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

Rosa 

* Carolina (Swamp Rose) 

* cinnamomea (Cinnamon Rose). 

* Harisonii (Harison's Yellow Rose). 

* lucida (Glossy Rose). 

* multiflora. 

* multiflora var. cathayensis. 

* nitida. 

* rubiginosa (Sweetbrier) . 

* rugosa (Japanese Rose). 

* rugosa var. alba. 

* setigera (Prairie or Michigan Rose). 

* spinosissima (Scotch Rose). 

* spinosissima var. altaica (Altai Rose). 
S* Wichuraiana (Memorial Rose). 

Roses 
t** Garden. See p. 216. 

* Rambler. See p. 218. 

*Rubus. See p. 205, Blackberries and Raspberries. 
t* allegheniensis (Blackberry), 
t* occidentalis (Black Raspberry, or Blackcap). 

* odoratus (Flowering Raspberry, or Thimbleberry) . 

These plants should have the old canes cut out entirely 
S* spectabilis var. plena {R. fruticosus, or R. Linkianus). 
Salix (Willow) 

* alba, in variety. 

* Babylonica. 

* Caprea (Goat Willow). 

* cordata. 

* discolor (Pussy Willow). 

* humilis (Prairie Willow). 

* pentandra (Laurel-leaved Willow). 

* purpurea. 

* tristis (Dwarf Willow). 
Sambucus 

** canadensis (Common Black Elderberry). 

* racemosa (S. pubens) (Red Elderberry). 
Shad-bush. See Amelanchier. 
Shepherdia 

* argentea Buffalo-berry). 



ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS 231 

Sophora 
** japonica (Japanese Pagoda Tree). 
** vicifolia. 
Sorbaria. Practice gradual renewal and prune to improve form. 
t** (Spiraea) Aitchisonii. This plant is usually more or less winter- 
injured in the North. 
t** arborea. 
t** sorbifolia. 
Sorbus 

* americana (American Mountain-ash). 

* Aucuparia (European Mountain-ash). 

Spiraea. All the late-blooming section may be pruned Uke deutzia, 
but the time should be winter except that unsightly fruits 
may be removed. 
Aitchisonii. See Sorbaria. 
** alba (/S. salicifolia) (Meadow-Sweet, or Queen-of-the-Meadow) . 
** Billardii (S. Lenneana). 

* bracteata. 

** Bumalda, var. Anthony Waterer. 

* crenata. 
** Douglasii. 

* gemmata. 

** japonica {S. callosa). 
popuhfolia. 

* prunifoha var. flore-pleno (Bridal Wreath). 

t* Thunbergii. Winter-killed parts should be removed. 
** tomentosa (Steeplebush, or Hardback). 

* trilobata. 

* Vanhouttei (Van Houtte's Spirea). 
Staphylea 

* Bumalda. 

* trifolia (American Bladder-nut). 
Stephanandra 

t* incisa {S. flexuosa). 
t* Tanakse. 

Both stephanandras are somewhat tender. The only prun- 
ing is to cut off dead wood after growth starts in spring. 
*Styrax japonica. 

**Stewartia Pseudo-Camellia. This species is more satisfactory in 
northern gardens than the native S. pentagona. 
Symphoricarpos 
** racemosus (Snowberry). 



232 SPECIFIC ADVICE 

**Sj'TOphoricarpos vulgaris (Coral-berrj')- 
*S>Tiiplocos crataegoides. 
Syringa. See Philadelphus. 

Syringa (Lilac). Cut off old flowers, remove suckers, and keep 
constant lookout for borers. 

* chinensis (tS. rothomagensis) (Rouen Lilac). Also *var. alba 

and *var. rubra. 

* Henrjd var. Lutece. 
** japonica (Tree Lilac). 

* oblata. 

* pekinensis. 

* persica (Persian Lilac). Also *var. alba and *var. rubra. 

* villosa. 

* vulgaris (Common Lilac). 
Vaccinium 

* corymbosiun (High-bush Blueberry). 

* pennsylvaniciun (Early Low Blueberry). 
Viburnum 

* acerifoUum (Maple-leaved Viburnum, or Dockmackie). 

* alnifoliiun (F. lanianoides) (Hobble-bush). 

* Carlesii. 

* cassinoides (Withe-rod). 

* dentatum (Arrow-wood). 

* dilatatum. 

* Lantana (European Wayfaring Tree). 

* Lentago (Nanny-berry, or Sheep-berrjO • 

* Opulus (High-bush Cranberry, or Guelder Rose). 

* prunifoUum (Black Haw). 

E* rhjiiidophyllum. Flower-buds usually tender. 

* Sieboldii. 

* tomentosum. 

* Wrightii. 

t**Vitex incisa. Somewhat tender. Cut back heavily in early spring. 
t**Vitis (Grape). See Chapters VUI, LX, X. 

Willow. See SaUx. 

Wisteria 

* chinensis. 

* chinensis var. alba. 
Witch-hazel. See Hamamelia. 
Zenobia 

S** pulverulenta. 



CHAPTER VII 

SOME SPECIAL MODES OF TRAINING 

Many modes of training are so special and of such local and 
personal application that they may be considered in a class by 
themselves. They are essentially Old- World methods, bom of 
garden-culture and of patient hand-work. They are not 
adapted to commercial fruit-growing or plant-growing in this 
coimtry, nor to any countrj^ in which land is cheap and 
hand-labor dear, ex- 
cept as practices for 
the amateur. Yet, so 
common are these 
special methods of 
training fruit-trees and 
other plants in Europe 
that the Old-World 
hterature of pruning 
is largely descriptive 
of methods and modes 
of growing plants on 
walls and treUises and 
in geometrical figures. ^^^- "^ "^^"^^^' ^'^'""^^ *'""• 

It is not necessary to make any extended discussion of these 
matters in this book; but in the present chapter hberal quota- 
tions are made from European wTitings to give the American 
reader a general idea of the subject. Most of our growers have 
no idea of the careful detail often employed in these training 
operations by the skilful Old-World gardener, or of the excellent 
results that he secures. 

(233) 




-o4 SPECIAL MODES 

The kinds or denominations of training may bo classified as 
follows: 
I. Training of plants growing in the open ground. 

1. Without permanent support. 

PA'ramids, 
Cdobe-form. 
Vase-form. etc. 

2. Witli pernumont support. 

a. On ospalioii> — 

cordon, 
horizontal, 
oblique, 
fan-shape, 
horizontal arm, etc. 

b. On walls— 

cordon, 

horizontal, 

oblique, 

fan-shape, 

horizontal arm, etc. 
II. Tniining of plants in receptacles (as pots or tubsV 

Trained m various fashions, but chietly as self-sap- 
porting bushes of many shapes. 
A carefully trained American ti"ee is sho^^^^ m Fig. 244. but 
the special skill is usually Wst exliibited in subjects of smaller 
gro^^'th. To familiarize the reader with the detailed forms in 
which fniit plants may be traineti by one possessing the time 
and skill, Figs. 245 to 201 are inserted, being ivproduced. by 
permission of the author, from Lucas, "Die Lehre vom Baum- 
schnitt," Stuttgart, 1909. 

TRAINED TREES 

Before proceeding with oiu* subject of special fonns of train- 
ing, it will be necessary to consider some of the words used m the 



RICASONS FOU riiMNLwa 



235 



abovo syiu)])sis. In I'luropc (and proix'ily) the wortl ''standard," 
as ai)i)lied io a ])lant, moans growing to a single trunk and not 
lrain(>d to a wall, lri>llis, or olhcr luMinanont su])i)()i(. In this 
country, it is usihI in contraclistinction to the word 
*'dwarf." An t^spaiicr is a trellis, or a plant grown on 
a tfoUis. The word doc>s not ref(>r to the mode of 
training. A cordon is properly a. i)iant. grown to a 
single shoot, or to two shoots trained in o])])()sit(» 
directions. It is fi(Miuei\tly ein])loyed, iiowever, to 
desiignate plants traini'd to two or more straight 
shoots which are nearly or (luitc ])arallel either 
above on(> another or on the same i)lane. 

Although the mode of training is largely a ques- 
tion of ])crsonal pi-eference, it must nevertheless 
conform to the i)rinciplt>s of priming, if it is to be 
successful. One i>f the standard accounts of the 
general principles underlying the training of plants, 
is by Du Breuil.* lU>fore ])rociHHrmg to these ])rin- 
cii)les, we may enumerate Du Breuil's reaaons for 215 

trjiininiT- ^ pyramid 

Uammg. ^ tree of tho 

1. It enables us to imi)art to trees a fonn suit- coUinuiiir 
able to the place they are intendetl to oc^cupy. 

2. Each of the principal 

- ■'•■ i^W^'^H^MM 'i ^ '^ C - ^^ i K^^ ^ 'C'^ ^-- ^^'"i^^^'l^t^^ ^^ 'l»t' ta-ee is fur- 
nished with fruit -branches 



•^^^^^^M^ 





throughout its full extent. 
gjij-^,^ 3. It ivnders the fruti- 

24(). A two-armod or double cordon, a fieatiou nu)re equal; for in 
M.ol.srfuiiv'in^.hS"'' """^ °*^"'^ *'"^*"' """ '"^''iioving (^very year tho 

su}HM-abundant buds and 
branclu>s, w(> contiibute to the formation of new fruit-buds for 
the next year. 

♦Alphonso Du Breuil, "Tho Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit- 
trees," EnglisJi edition. 



};^ 



SP«tV.<I .V00ff5 



4, It ^XMuiiuw? to tl\o prvxiuotioii ixf largo fmit juul <\f finer 
quiiUty. 

Ovi Unniirs "ginuniU priuoiplos of tnuuiivc:/' witli tvrv^Uaru^. 
which applN- with jvutioulu* t\\nv to tnuuitv^ «.\u w:Uls :u\d 
i;*jvUier^ now Wlow: 

WuH^ tho !jtr\Mxji bnu\oht\« sshort; but alKnv the weak** on«6 to ijrow 

lVpn>iS? tho *tnuv>l ivvrts? vxf the tnv, aiui olo\-Hto tho ww^ik hnuu-ht^s, 
SxjptM\\s» tho vtJoK^isi buds mxvu tho strv«v^ jvurts jis ohtIj- .^ vxxssiblo. 
.vuvi i^raotis*." tlu* supprwssioii as lato as ^Hxssablo ujxm tho wx\vk jvu-ts, 

S^uppn^ss wry 0Arl>- tho ht^r- 
IxAiwvis ^^\tr\n«itit>s of tho strvMVjj 
ivurtx but prHoti?^^ tho svipprw*- 
sivMi iv? Into AS jHxssiblo u{vu tho 
\\-\\>ik i^ATts tAkiiv>l otY oul>.- tho 
nu>st vijjvvrvnvs shvvts, juul th«.>s«* 
thAt uuist in Ai^v oAst^ Iv romo\>\l 
i>»\ A^wuixt v>t" tht^ jKxsitiv\i\ thoy 
vHvupy. 

NjuI up tho strvMiji jvu-t wry 
oArly Aiui wry oK>s^^ to tht^ whW 
vxr trolUs. but dolAy doing so to 
tho woAk t>Art- 




:M7. Obliviuo-?r»in^\l vvrvivv 



Sup^xrvs!? A uumbor of tho Ioanvs upot\ tho strvxu^ sivio. 

Allow AS Iatvs.' a v\UAntity iVt tho fruit as vxvssiWo to ronvAin upo»\ th© 
stroixs !si«.l*N iuui sviptxix^ss;; aII vi^xnt tho NV\\4k sido. 

Sv>ftoi\ All tho sr^vix jvurts m\ tho wvAk sivio with a s^>lvitivw v,>f siilfAto 
of iivxix. \,"This sv\Uitioi\. in tho ptyH^Ttivvu ixf tvwnty-four sniius to a jun* 
v\f \vAtor. Apt>liovi Aftor siuvsot. is Al\sv^rK\i by tht^ U\>»\\\<, A«d ix>\wrfully 
stiiiuilAt^^ thoir AOtivMX in drAwiivji tho sap frwiu tho rvx^ts,'"^ 

l^i\^ forwATvi tho wYAk sido trv>«\ tho waII, azvvI kvx^p tho strong sido 
ck>s<^ to it. 

Haw a cvnvriixg u^x'tu tho stxvaxg jvATt, s<.> as to iio|>n\» it i>f tho U^t, 

Tht mp «i»«vlu|»$ tk* bnimchoi much m<vy ni\>r\n*s2>j u ttoM ti MtMt'A tnti .^W 



I'liLMCiri.l'IS OF Tli.MMNd 



ZM 



The .s'lr/) liiin itlinii/s ii tcmlcncii to Jltnn liiiraril llif rxlrniiiln nf tin- \>riiiirhv», 
mill III iiiiikr llir Irniiniitl hinl ilii<rli>it ii'illi iniiir rifiiir lliiiii llir Inlrrnl. 
iiiiiti. 

The more, lliv Hitp in rvlnrdvd in Hh nrriilnlion, llir Imn wixul and Ihv more. 
fritil-hwlH will it drvcUyp. 

Apply It) I.Ik" brmiclicH wliitli ki'"w irom llic MiicccHHivf^ cxtfiiHiDriH of 
the wood, iiml iiIho |.o (Jioh(i wliicli Mpiiii^', I'loiii llicin, I lie upcnil ioiiH nilcii- 
latrd lo (liininiHli llii-ir vJKor. 

Apply to Mill larutT brurK^hcH n. (rcrlaiii iiuiiihcr of {lininlin'H mW uniflH. 
('I'lit'Hc lire cioMH of fniil-HpiirH or rniil-ltiidH hcI. iido Mid l.winH m doriiinon 
hudH nn- hcI.. "TlicHd uniflH, wlicii I'niilitiK, will nl)H()rl> a (JOiiHidcrahlo 
pai'f of Mii< nii|iriiiJtimdaiil. HMp.") 







An^h all (lu^ bnuiclicH, ho tlial. 
n part of Micir cxlnil. \h\ din'fltMl 
toward llx* sun. 

In Ihv iiioiilli of l''ci)riiarv, 
niak(^ an aruiiilar iiiciMioii vvitli 
thd hand-Haw, uvnv llui Ihikc of 
th(i hUmii, ralli(M' \vhh lliaii '4 
inch ill width, an<l HiiHicii'iitly 
deep to pdiinlralo iiio oxlt'iior 
Hlnycr of ihv wood, ('"ria^ iiici- 
hIoii lias (ho ('ITcnl; of rdnrding 
tilt' aHcciiHion of lliti nap; Mkj 
brancht'H ai-tpiirt' I(>hh viRor, and 
tlio l.rct' ftuniH fniil..") 

At tht' Hprinn of thi^ year, 
uiu^ovor Mii> fool, of lliti (.riMi in hiihIi a inaiinur aH to nxpoHn thti principal 
rt)()tH Minmnhtait nearly tluMrontirti exltint, and allow tliitni to ri'inain in 
thirt .stalti tlurinj^ the Hiininifr. 

UntHiver the foot of the tree at. Hpriii>;;, M.nd eut away jiarlH of tlit) rootH, 
anil then replaiMi tht^ earth. 

Transplant, the trees at the end of ;iiitiinm, hut with ^:^\^^'i\,t caro BO aa 
tt) |)reserve all the roots. ('I'liis is equiv.'ilent to root-pnmiii^;.) 

Every method irhirh n)iiiliiri:s lo diniiniKh thr viyor of Ihr. wood. (iiid lo make 
the mip Jlow to Ihr fr nit IrnilN lo nii(iiiiriil tlir size, of the friiil. 

draft upon stocks of a less vif^oroiis species than the cioiis. 
Apply to the trees a siiila.hle winter pninin)i;; that, is, tlo not leavi^ U[)on 
thorn more hranchtiH, or parts of branches, than is retiuiNite for the syin- 



^IttCtflSU. 



2^H. BcciiniiK tiie liorizoiitiil cordon 
fonn hy tnriiiii).'; or l.wiMliiiK tlie mI.ciii 
<liiriii>.i; til(^ ))('ri()(l of j^rowlii. 



1\kS 



SPECIAL MODES 



metrical de\-elopment of the tive an.l the formation of fniit-boaring 
branches. 

Make friiit-ispursi to grow close ii^xm the branches by pruning them as 
short as possible. 

C\it the bn^nches verj- close when the flower-buds arc formed. 

Mutilate the smnmer shoots by n^jx\\teilly pinching off those shoots 
that are not rtxiuired for the development of the size of the trt^. 

When the fruit* have attained a fifth degrtv of their development, 
suppress a fiu-ther nimiber of them. 

Make an annular incision ujx)i\ the fruit-bearing branches at the time 
they expand their blossoms; the incision must not be wider than A inch. 
(.'•Experience cont^ually demonstrates that, foDowing such incision, tJie 
fruit becomes much larger and ripens better.") 

Graft some of the fruit-branches of vigorous trees with the Girardin 
side graft. (.See page 237.) 

Place imder the fruits, diu"ing their growth, a support to prevent their 
stretching or twisting their foot -stalks or pedicels. ("If left without sup- 
port, it will often happen that the fruit grows imequally, and a twisting 
movement of the stalk follows, which injiures the sap>-vessels. Besides, the 




<^.--^^-ai.ss«fSaaBS^-<-5>'?^it.vi*--A 



249. Oblique-trained grape cordons. 




250. Grape cordons or arms 
on a wall surface. 



weight of the fruit alone, hanging on its stem, stretches the sap-^"essels, 
and diminishes their diameter. \Mien the fruits are supported, the sap 
penetrates more freely, and their size is augmented accordingly.") 

Keep the fruits in their normal p)osition during the entire period of 
their development; that is, with the fruit-stem lowermost. (."'The sap acts 
with greater force when it flo\\-s upward; a vertical position of the stalk, 
therefore, causes the sap to ascend more easily and in greater quantity, 
and the fruit will become larger.") 



FklSCIPLKH or THAISISO 



239 



Pla/% ihti frvitti wtAfx the ihade tA tb« li^r«» Aarm^ Uk tesOMH vntjfA 
'A tiKtr jgovth, Clf a youiig fruit be txpomA %t» the power of the Mm, it 
win be smalkr than one Aaded by the fesrcs, beeaoK ite dda will be har^ 
'kiMBrl and not igire way to tfae t«iid«3iejr of the iKq> to tiSf/eeoA A.**) 

AfffAy to ttM; yotjDig fraitii a inlatioD of taXiOe of iron, <''We har« aH- 
r^^y f^^x that a «oliJtioa of «alfal« of iroo apfjUatA to the kdr«i itiMMiatw 
ritfirptmenol ahKoimfiaap, Tbe 
thoui^ oeeurred tojqiftytlbeiobi' 
rioD to tbe frutt«, and the cffeet in 
iotxeatm^thar mze wm exbaordi' 
nary. The nohttioa riioidd be id 
th^ proportion of twenty -Coor 
i^rauM to a pint of water. Apply 
a only wfaen the fruit is eooL 
Hfil)f:siX tfa^ fjfffratioa tbree tfasoai: 
wben tbe fruitc bare obtatned a 
fourth part of their dereiopmeDt; 
when they are a fittle larjeer; and 
again wfaen they are thrae; parts gromtL^f 

Graft by ^qipfoodi a «DaaIl sbooC iqiOD the pedande or ImitH^iar, to 
wbieh tbe frttit k atta<died when it hax attaiiKd a tfatnl pstrt *A itf. dev^jp- 




^rjii^ta^ with 
irtmiiMg wrxicL 






/'/' !.'^ '^''/^^' f//j.''.^.'."^'', 0/ Vvi 



«/ t/^jHa wpf/Ti. U-t^. Umgh*, A tree, therefore, thai i* deprieed of iU Urtrt* 
u tn tiftruger t^ ye^'itAcmg. 

Titfi yMnriy fotf^roAon* t^ reood lAuruld he fAtarUoMA mare or ^ < ^/mnAt* 

ayi^onch a tertieei fyie, or the aml r a rif. 



WALIXTBEES, ASD r/THEBS 

Plants are trained on walk for purpoeee of deeoratkn or for 
fruirAjf^nntL Fruit-trees so tratDed sore protected from winter 
cold, and the fruits are bettef diistri)]«ited, lew eoirexed in leafage, 
and receive greater warmth and nml^it than wfaen grown free. 
In «umi}' countries, with hot weather at the period of fnut- 
rqiening, fruit« dfrvf^/p their full ec4or and flavor without the 
aid c^ walk. In fact, in Amenea the south faee of a wall msr^ be 



240 



SPECIAL ^tODES 



too hot for tho bost ivsvilts with somo frviits. On :\ soutli wall, 
also, the bU>sson\s open very early in spriujj; and aiv in liani^er of 
Iviug eaught by fi\>sts. This is espeeially true of aprieots ami 
jvaehes. and for them a westerh' or even northerly exposure 
may be pivferable. 

In Kuivpe. gardens aiv often surivimded with brick walls 
several fivt high ; and in n\any eases, siieh walls aiv built aci\">ss 
an aiva for the particular purpi>se of pixniding supjx>rt for fruit. 
The walls of buildings, whether of brick, stone, or wood, may be 
used. All apricot, peach, pear, or other fruit-tive trained against 




v' >^ 



252. Palmotto apple tiw ;V5 tnuiuxl 253. A jvUmotto in need of tliin- 

in the nurserj-, for growing on an nins. an o^x>ration that nla^• Ix) 
espalier. iwinWued with the August priming. 

a bam, shop, shed, or outhouse is not only a decoratioti but is an 
object of much mteivst and, if the location, variety, and training 
are right, it should yield fruit of extra quality. These trained trees 
cannot compete with orchard tiws in quantity of fruit, but they 
sliould surpass them hi the quality of the pnxiuct. 

FoUowmg is spetntie advice, from the English standpouit, on 
tlie arnmgement and construction of walls and fences.* bv 
CheaJ: 

*J. Che;U. "l*raetical Fruit-Culture," Loudon. 1892, 112. 



WALLS AND FKNCKS 



241 




"WAMiH. — 'I'Ik; iirniiif:;cin(tii(, uiid posiljoii of wiills will, of course, 
(lopond upon \\\i\ Hizo and Uk; natun; of ili(( HiuroundinnH, etc., but thoy 
Hhould alwayK l)c arrunn(Hl, if poKHibhi, in a Hquarc, willi tli(> priiic,ii)al wall 
fa<;inK south, or iiH nearly ho aH i)rac,l.i(!ahlo. Wlicre it. i,s po.ssihlc, pla(!(! 
Mi(! walls in sucli !i, posilion thai. Uk! ouisidii as well as Ww inside; borders 
may hv. us(h1 for fruil., thus making us(! of the whole of the wall space; and 
bear in mind t.hat, ui)on t.he north side many useful fruits m;i,y be fi;rown. 
Th(! position, wav. and re(}uire- 
iiKrnis an; so varicid that, it, is 
imi)ossiblo in the corn[)ass of 
this work to give more than 
a Koaeral idea as to arraiif;;*'- 
nient,s. 

"Th(! height of the walls 
should b(; from 8 feet to 15 
f(!(>t, acoordinfj; to cireum- 
stances. In most eases the 
south wall may be Iowct, t,o 
athnit more sunshine into the; 
garden ; and in the case of large 

ganhms, one or more cross- .,^, . , .^ x r ■ 

II- 1 ^•''l- '^ ijiiliiietto-vorner tranwfoniied 

walls may also be mtroduced. fr^ni Mu; usual r)alrii(!tt(! shown in FI^h. 

As to tluiir (!onst,ru(!tion, they '^■^"■i, ^-W. FrcxiuenMy oik; cannot kIvc the 

, ,, , 1 -ii -iu i n(!OCHHiiry brciultli -(expansion to Hl.roiinlv 

should be built wit,hout any .icvdop.ul Hiinplc pali.ict,t,cs, sincahcy would 

I)iers. Archit,(>ct,s have; g(!n(!r- come; in ccjiiflict with lJ>*<iicip;hh()rinK trees; 

ally a great fancy for piers, or o„c fin.ls (i.at thcYfK.Mmnd.er of stories 

■^ . . ■' . . ' iiiteri(T(;s uiifavoraljiy witri tlH; low<!st 

and in many instances, insist l)nuiclics. In both cases, a transformation 

upon having them; but walls '"<" "' l'aim(.tt<--vern(!r is th(! most uppro- 

, , ., .^, ' . , ])nalc nicl-liod to kivc; the t-n^c a practicajjle 

can b(! budt without piers, and .i„,l nulnrul form. Tint finun; shows the; w:iy 

they are always a great fliffi- in which this is acrcompli.shcd. The dotted 

,, I • i iU diiiKorial lines show the original form oi the 

culty and nuisance to the gar- ^jj,,'^,,,. „^ jj^,.,., p,,i„„,(,,,,.. 

dener. 'i'h(;y frecpa^nt-ly inter- 
fere with th(! arrangcMnent of t,h(! t,r(U!S wlien planting, and in training 
they an; a great t.nMibh?, and oft(!n cause; much damage; t,o the trees. 
Another matt,er of imp()rt,ance in (ionstruction is to i)rovid(! a good p(;rma- 
nent coping of tiles or stone;, pre)je;cting at h;ast (i ine;he;H freim the face of 
the; wall. 'rhe;se! shoulel in all cases be provided independently of any 
further coping for the protection of the trees at the time of flowerring. 

"Removablk glass copings are very useful for peaches, nectarin(;s, 
and apricots. ""I^hese an; only required for a few weeks in the spring, at 
the time; of blossoming and S(;tting the; fruit, anel shoulei be re;moveeJ 



242 



SPECIAL MODES 




when no longer required. Fixed glass copings are very objectionable, as 
they keep off all rain, encourage red spider and other vermin, and neces- 
sitate constant syringing. There.are several manufacturing firms who make 
light iron framework to carry the sashes, these being so constructed as to 
allow of their easy removal. 

"In all cases it is a great saving of labor to wire the walls or fences. 
These should be placed in lines not exceeding 9 inches apart. Galvanized 

hold-fasts, tighteners, and all needful ap- 
pliances are easily obtainable for the pur- 
pose. The wires should be fixed at about 
2 inches from the wall. 

"Tying to the wire is much more 
quickly done than naihng to the wall, and 
does not afford the same shelter to insect 
pests, whilst it preserves the wall from 
injur J' due to constant naihng, and allows 
the wood to ripen more thoroughly and 
evenly. The branches are also enabled to 
form fruit-spurs and -buds all rovmd, and it 
255. A wall covered with a frequently happens that the inside or back 
CHerdrb7::pa?:^ett'2iJthe blossoms escape injury from frost which 
gable. For the forming of the damages the outer ones, and a crop is thereby 
gable palmette, a one-year tall- g.^^pj j^ the case of all fruits, however, and 
stemmed tree is planted and . ,, , , , • • 

the next year it is cut off above especially that of peaches and nectarines, it 
two buds so that the two is needful to be very careful in tying the 
shoots arising therefrom give ^ ^ ^ xi i i • • 

the foundation or main arms, trees to prevent the branch coming un- 
Before the formation of the mediately into contact with the galvanized 
K; 'ones^' mirsf'r'Ur; ^e. Many instances have occurred of 
strongly developed, as other- disease and decay resulting from this. 

There is, however, no danger if the pre- 
caution is always taken in tying to cross 
the tie between the branch and the wire, 
so that the branch is held firmly in position without coming into actual 
contact with the wire. And the danger may be still further lessened by 
painting the wires and hold-fasts after fixing. 

"Espalier fences. — These can generally be placed to advantage in a 
kitchen-garden, as they occupy but little space, and produce an abundance 
of fine fruit. They may be used as a bordering near to the paths, or at the 
back of the flower-border, which is usually arranged on either side of the 
central walk, but there are also other positions outside the kitchen-garden 
where they can be placed to advantage. If the fruit is well grown, such 



wise they would be naked and 
the tree would be thin in the 
lower part. 



WALLS, ARCHES AND FENCES 



243 




256. Two-storied dwelling carrying 
two kinds of U-palmettc and with a two- 
storied palmette-verrier. The path 
around the building is provided with 
horizontal cordons. 



fences present an artistic appearance, and are admissible even in the 

ornamental garden, or may be used as a division between the ornamental 

and kitchen-gard(!n. The fences themselves are usually formed of galvan- 

ized-iron posts, with winss stretched between. They require at each 

end a strong post made of angle 

iron, with anchor feet and stays, to 

bear the strain of tightening the 

wire. The intermediate posts need 

only be flat iron with anchor feet. 

For the ordinary horizontal form of 

training, 5 to 6 feet in height will 

be aofficient, but if made high 

enough — say from 7 to 9 feet — these 

fences are very good for training 

cordons upon. Gooseberries may 

also be trained upon low espalier 

fences of 3 to 4 feet in height, and 

when trained as double cordons, or 

as palmettes with three to five branches, they produce the finest possible 

fruit; and this mode is strongly recommended for growing the choice 

dessert varieties. 

"Wire arches. — These may sometimes be suitably introduced into 

the kitchen-garden, spanning some of the paths. They occupy but little 

ground-space, and afford excellent means for the training of cordons. 

They give a pleasant shade to the path, the trees are well supported, and 

the fruit spread out to the full effect of the sun, and in some respects 

they are better for training the cordon trees upon than ordinary espaliers. 

The turn at the top gives the gentle check to the upright flow of sap so 

desirable and advantageous for securing fine fruit at the base of the tree. 

A garden in this neighborhood has one of these arches 350 feet in length, 

spanning the central road through the large kitchen-garden, and being 

15 feet wide and of the same height, it forms a magnificent avenue. 

"Wooden fences. — It sometimes hap- 
pens that wooden fences aye placed in such 
a position as to be available for fruit. A 
wooden fence is in no case so good as a 
wall, as in the best of them there is always 
some draught, so that there is not the same 
uniform temperature maintained as in the 
case of walls, which, from their greater sub- 
stance, retain a certain amount of warmth 




257. Salver-form dwarf, 
trained to withstand severe 
storms. 



244 



SPECIAL MODES 




shaped tree 
branches. — 



during the night. Nevertheless, wooden fences are very useful for fruit. 
They should always be wired before planting the trees, as it is difficult to 
nail to the wooden fences, whilst wire also possesses other advantages. 

I have seen wooden fences employed to great 
advantage in Guernsey for fruit-growing. In 
one case in particular I noticed a number of 
light wooden fences, about 6 feet high and 9 
feet apart, running north and south, and 
parallel to each other. These were covered 
on both sides with cordon-trained pears, and 
at the time of my visit they were laden with 
heavy crops of remarkably fine fruit, and the 
cultivator was by these means enabled to 
grow a very large quantity in a smaU space. 

"IMany wooden fences surrounding the 
gardens of subin-ban villas might be turned 
to very useful account for growing fruit, and 
would afford healthful and interesting em- 
plojTuent to the overwrought brain-worker 
in cultivating it, as well as enable him to 
supply his own table with the freshest of 
fruit. There are also 
numberless wooden 
fences, as well as walls, 
in many of our farms 
and homesteads, which 
could be turned to 
profitable accoimt by 
covering them with fruit, trained as above described. 
"BusH-FRTjiTS. — Plantations of these are usually 
made outside the walled-in garden, either below 
orchard trees or in the open ground. The latter is 
much preferable, as they can receive better treat- 
ment and safer protection from birds. The last- 
mentioned consideration is an important one. 
WTiere choice dessert fruit is required, it must of 
necessity remain on the trees until fully ripe, and 
some of it has to remain as long as possible after 
ripening, to prolong the season of use. With these 
the birds are extremely troublesome. The best way 
of protecting them, and also the cheapest in the 



2oS. Kettle- 
with twelve 
Such a tree should have a 
diameter of 1.20 meters 
(about -1 feet) at its base if 
each of the twelve branches 
in the circle is to be about 
30 centimeters (about 1 
foot) distant from the 
others. This distance is gen- 
erally considered the cor- 
rect one for the stone-fruits 
since in that case each 
branch receives a sufficient 
supply of air and light and 
can develop the fruit per- 
fectly. 




259. Goblet-form 
tree, with six 
branches. — In this 
form, the lower and 
upper hoops should 
have a diameter of 
100 centimeters 
(about -40 inches), 
the middle a dia- 
meter of about 80 
centimeters. 



BUSH-FRUIT TRAINING 



245 



long run, is to cover the plantation with galvanized wire netting. Erect 
sufficient posts, and stretch from these galvanized wire at a height of 6 
feet from the ground. Then across the wires fix the netting. Wire it 
together, and fasten it to the ground all round. If 
erected as above, it allows any one to work inside — 
to prune, clean, and gather, etc. — whilst effectually 
preventing birds from approaching the fruit. 

"The position of the bush-fruit outside the 
walled-in garden would, of course, depend upon 
circumstances, but it can generally be arranged 
very close at hand, and in conjunction with it, the 
sea-kale and rhubarb beds, etc., which are some- 
what untidy in the spring, owing to the copious 
application of manure, etc., required. The soil for 
the bush-fruits should be prepared by trenching 
and manuring as described for the inside kitchen- 
garden." 




THE PATTERNS 



260. Simple wing- 
er candelabra-pyra- 
mid, with four 
branches. 



In the Old World, trees are trimmed 
and formed in the nursery to adapt them to particular modes 
of training. In fact, the training is often begun there. A few 
nurserymen in this country may offer trained 
trees, but such stock is little known with us. 
Fig. 262 is a young peach tree trained in the 
nursery for a palm-shape. The main shaft is 
supported by a stake, and two long stakes 
are attached to it, like a gable. Other stakes 
are tied across this frame, and to them the 
arms of the tree are secured. 

Persons in this country who desire to train 
trees to special shapes may buy yearling 
trees of the nurseries. These are provided 
with buds on the main trunk or shaft, and 
when they are headed-back, the required 
number of shoots may be secured in the 
proper positions. It may even be important 




261. Simple wing- 
er candelabra-pyra- 
mid formed on four 
main branches, each 
of which is divided 
into two. 



246 



SPECIAL MODES 



not to choose the largest yearhngs, for on them the lower buds 
may be very weak. This is particularly true with peach trees, 
for in these the lower side buds break the first year, and the 
nurseryman trims them off in order to get a straight and long- 
bodied tree. (Page 154, Figs. 158, 159.) 

How high to leave the trunk and how many branches to 
take out depend entirely on the 
-mk^,!}^^ mode of training that the operator 

has in mind. 







262. Trained peach tree, 
ready for setting in perma- 
nent quarters. 





263. Apple tree trained as a simple cordon. 



Before undertaking any method of special training, the 
operator should understand that there is no necessary or essen- 
tial mode for any fruit. The form of training is mostly opposed 
to the natural habit of the plant. This fact will be apparent if 
the reader considers that most of the illustrations in the Old- 
World literature of the subject are diagrams, not pictures. The 
operator works to geometrical figures. He sets a pattern; and 
the more nearly the plant approaches this pattern the more 
satisfactory is likely to be the training. 

Some of the common forms »in which fruit-trees may be 
trained are suggested in the following translation from Bois:* 

"The Pyramid. — An old and a good form, suitable especially for pear 
trees. Its advantages are, that it can be cultivated in borders, where it 

*D. Bois, "Le Petit Jardin," Paris. 



FORMS OF TRAINED TREES 



247 



relatively takes up little room; that it freely allows circulation of air and 
light; that it casts very little shade; and that it bears abundantly. The 
pyramid or cone consists of a principal or vertical stem, covered with 
lateral branches from a point 30 centimeters [a centimeter is about % inch] 
above the ground, to the top of the tree. The branches, which grow some- 
what obUquely, are separated from each other by a distance of about 
30 centimeters, diminishing gradually in length from the bottom to the 
top, thus forming a cone, the largest diameter of which is about one-third 
of the total height. 

"The coLtJMN or spindle. — This form is adapted to pear and apple 
trees. It has the advantage of taking up less room than the pyramid, and 
of bearing more quickly. On the other hand, it is not so long-Uved, and is 
suitable for less vigorous varieties only. The column differs from the 
pyramid only in the fact that its lateral branches are shorter. 

"The vase. — Around a central stem, and at a distance of about 15 
centimeters above the ground, arise branches which grow first horizontally 
and then vertically, in 
such a way as to give to 
the entire tree the form 
of a vase. The branches 
must be separated from 
each other by a distance 
of about 30 centimeters, 
and they are maintained 
in this position by tying 
them to hoops fastened 
to stakes inserted in the 
ground. This form is 
justly much esteemed. It 
freely allows a circulation 
of Hght and air through 
all its parts. 

"The bush or tuft. 
— The bush is suitable for 

currants, raspberries, etc. From the crotch of the plant, or at a short dis- 
tance above the ground, arise branches which grow in every direction. 
It is simply necessary to train them so that they do not interfere with 
each other. 

"The horizontal cordon (Fig. 263) is suitable especially for apple trees 
grafted on Paradise stock, and to the less vigorous varieties of pear trees 
grafted on quince stock. This form is especially to be recommended for 



\l^^u "^-^^ 


t^%^ 












f ij^ I "^ 


1 


kiSd'ifc ] 


' 








. .^ 





264. A candelabrum pear tree. 



248 



SPECIAL MODES 



the borders of walks. It consists of a stem which first grows vertically, 
then bent at a certain height, anti is maintained in this horizontal position 
by attaching it to wire. The trees are planted at a distance of 2 or 3 meters 

[a meter is nearly 40 inches] from each 
other, and their stems, when meeting, form 
a long, unbroken garland or wreath, which 
makes a very pretty effect. 

"Espalier training is to be especially 
recommended. It is suitable for all kinds 
of fruit-trees, and allows the cultivation, 
in our latitude, of varieties the fruits of 
which would not ripen at aU, or would 
ripen incompletely in a more exposed 
situation. When trained against walls, 
they receive an amount of heat sufficient 
to produce fruit of a superior quahty. 
These include peaches, grapes, certain 
kinds of apricots, apples, pears, etc. The 
utilization of these walls is much neglected, 
and there would often be much profit in 
covering with espaliers the fronts of houses 
and all kinds of walls, especially when 
placed in a good situation, training the 
trees according to the form of the wall. The simplest form of espalier is the 
vertical cordon, which allows the trees to be planted very near together, 
which soon brings in a moderate return, and in a few years covers the wall. 
Like the column, this form is suitable only for the less vigorous varieties. 
It must be trained against a moderately 
high wall, for its growth is considerably 
stimulated by the suppression of its lateral 
branches, so that the principal stem has a 
tendency of growing rapidly. Whenever it 
is necessary to cut them back very much, 
it produces an excessive development of 
wood, to the detriment of its productive- 
ness. A form like a U, which is self- 
explanatory, is frequently employed. It is 
certainly one of the best. 

"The candelabrum (Figs. 264, 267) is 
formed by a number of lateral branches, 
from three to six, distributed regularly 




265. Scheme of vase-form 
pear tree. (Page 256.) 




266. Plan of the tree shown in 
Fig. 265. 



PEAR PYRAMIDS 



249 



along the principal stem. The simple palmette or palm leaf (Fig. 262) has 
a larger number of lateral branches. The palmette-verrier differs from 
the preceding only in the fact that after a certain distance its branches 
grow vertically. Palmettes are formed with six, seven, eight, ten, twelve 
branches, anil even with more." 

How to train a pyramid standard pear tree is explained as 
follows by Rivers :* 

"If a young gardener intends to plant, and wishes to train up his trees 
so that they will become quite perfect in shape, he should select plants one 
year old from the bud or graft, with single upright stems; these will, of 
cotTrse, have good buds down to the junction of the graft with the stock. 
The first spring a tree of this description should be headed-down, so as to 
leave the stem about IS 
inches long. If the soil be 
rich, from five to six and 
seven shoots will be 'pro- 
duced; one of these must be 
made the leader, and if not 
inclined to be quite perpen- 
dicular, it must be fastened 
to a stake. As soon, in sum- 
mer, as the leading shoot is 
10 inches long, its end must 
be pinched off ; and if it 
pushes forth two or more 
shoots, pinch off all but one 
to three leaves, leaving the 
topmost for a leader. The side shoots will, in most cases, assume a regular 
shape; if not, they may be this first season tied to slight stakes to make 
them grow in the proper direction. This is best done by bringing down and 
fastening the end of each shoot to a slight stake, so that an open pyramid 
may be formed — for if it is too close and cypress-like, enough air is not 
admitted to the fruit. They may remain unpruned till the end of August, 
when each shoot must be shortened to within eight buds of the stem. 

"The second season the tree will make vigorous growth; the side shoots 
which were topped last August will each put forth three, four, or more 
shoots. In June, as soon as these have made five or six leaves, they must 
be pinched off to three leaves, and if these spurs put forth shoots, which 

♦Thomas Rivers, "The Miniature Fruit-Garden." 




267. Three-arm espalier-trained tree. 



250 



SPECIAL MODES 



they often do, every shoot must be pinched down to one or two leaves, aU 

but the leading shoot of each mie hrarich; this must be left on to exhaust the 
tree of its superabundant sap, till the end of August, unless the tree is 
being trained as a compact pyramid. The perpendicular leader must be 
topped once or twice; in short, as soon as it has grown 10 inches, pinch off 
its top, and if it break into two or three shoots, pinch them all but the leader, 
as directed for the first season : in a few years most symmet rical trees may 
be formed. 

"When they have attained the height of 6 or 8 feet, and are still in a 
vigorous state, it will be necessary to commence root-pruning, to bring 
them into a fruitful state. 

"If some of the buds dh the stem of a young tree prove dormant, so 
that part of it is bare and without a shoot where there should be one, a 

notch 1-2 inch wide, and 
nearly the same in depth, 
should be cut in the stem 
just above the dormant 
bud. If this be done in 
February, a yoimg shoot 
will break out in the sum- 
mer 

"As the summer pinch- 
ing of p\Tamidal pears is 
the most interesting feature in their culture, and perhaps the most agree- 
able of all horticultural occupations, I nuist emioavor to give plain instruc- 
tions to carry it out. 

"The first season afticr the planting, about the middle or end of Jime, 
the side buds and branches will put forth young shoots; each will give from 
one to three or four. Select that which is most horizontal in its growth (it 
should be on the lower part of the branch, as the tree will then be more 
inclined to spread) for a leader to that branch, and pinch off all the others 
to three leaves. If these pinched shoot* again push, suffer them to make 
three leaves, and then pinch them to two leaves; but if the horizontal 
brixnch has a good leader, it will take off all the superfluous sap, and prevent 
the pinched spurs from breaking; the buds will only swell, and the following 
season they will be fruit-spurs. The upper shoots of the tree, say to about 
2 feet from its top, should be pinched a week before the lower shoots: this 
gives strength to those on the lower part of the tree. 

"In spring the perpendicular leader of the preceding year's growtli will 
put forth numerous shoots, which must be pinched in June in the following 
manner: those nearest the base, leave inches in length, gradually decreas- 




26S. Old espalier-trained apple tree, now 
self-supporting. 



ESPALIERS 



251 



ing upwards, leaving those next the young leading shoot only 2 inches long. 
'rh(> leader of these ready-formed pyramids tivxh] not be shortened in summer 
JUS direeted for younger trees; it may be suiTered to {^row till the hori- 
zontal leaders are shorten(>d in Au>!;ust, and then left (i or S inehes in length; 
but if thi^ trtH'S are to be kept to (i or 7 feet in heiglit under root-pruning, 
this leaiiing shoot may be shorteiuul to 2 iiuihes, or even cut (ilost; down to 
its bas(^ l'\)r tall pyramids of 10, 12, or 15 U'.cX, it may be left from 8 to 10 
inehes in length till t.lu> required height bo attained; it may then be cut to 
within 2 inches of its base every scuison." 

The methods to be pursued in the tniinhig of trees on espaliers 
may be explained by a concrete example. I choose an extract 
from Hardy* res])(Hdin^ the 
training of a palniette on 
an esptilier. A simple pal- 
niette is a plant wit h a singU^ 
erect stem and a numlxu" of 
side branches, as in Figs. 
252, 202; a vertical- 
branched palmette or cande- 
labrum is shown in F'ig. 264. 

"We endeavor to obtain thrc^e 
branches, — one to continue the 

growth of the trunk, i\w two oth(>rs to furnish two lowest lateral branches. 
To secure this result, wo. will choose; a bud [head-in the shoot] about 30 centi- 
meters [a (H'ntim(>ter is n<!arly ^^ inch] fiom the grountl. The middle bud 
will push a shoot upwards and the two oth(TS obliquely, but not too near 
the horizontal, so that they can make a vigorous growth. There is nothing 
else to do during the growing season, if the equilibrium between them 
maintains itself. 

"The vertical-branched palmette does best in soils of medium quality, 
as well as for high walls. In the first case, the verticality of the main 
branches assures to the last a more sustained vegetation than when they 
are horizontal. In the second ease, they more i)romptly cover the wall, for 
with this form we can [)lant the trees very close to each other, 1 meter 
[about 40 inehes] or \}4 meters apart, according to the distance which we 

*J. A. Hiirdy, "Tniit^ de lii Taillc dos Arbres Fruiticrs," Paris, 18G5, 
129, 137. 




252 SPECIAL MODES 

leave between the branches; the more we stretch out the framework the 
more the sap is reserved for a less number of branches. 

"The manner of estabUshing tliis form scarcely differs from that of 
the simple palmette. The first year, we trim as described in the first para- 
graph, only that instead of obtaining two oblique lateral shoots, as 
there described, it is necessary to cut the stem back to only about 40 centi- 
meters, and we train the two branches (A) up vertically. . . . The 
second year we pinch the shoot to obtain the second pair of branches 
about 20 centimeters above the first, and we direct these into the center 
of the space between the first two branches, training these framework 
branches 20 centimeters from each other. Then we trim the first branches 
(A) to a length double that of the trimk. The space of 20 centimeters is 
not absolute; we can make it 25 centimeters. Then, instead of planting 
the trees 1 meter apart, we can place them IJ^ meters, in such manner 
that the extremes of the framework of neighboring trees shall be as far 
apart as are the main branches of the tree itself. This second distance is 
preferable, as the branches receive more hght and air, a condition which 
is essential for good fruit-bearing. 

"The following years the treatment follows the method indicated, 
with all the main branches [two pairs and the trunk], but, however, taking 
care that we leave the outside branches (A) a little longer than the others, 
so that they can maintain their predominance. The tree thus treated 
arrives at the height of the wall in the sixth year, if its vigor is maintained 
and it meets with no accident." 

The treatment of a simple horizontal cordon (Figs. 246, 248, 
263) is thus described by Bellair:* 

"When grown in this way, the pear tree consists of a stem bent at a 
distance of 40 centimeters above the ground, then trained horizontally and 
covered with fruit-bearing branches. The cordons are trained as much as 
possible toward the strongest light. If the plantation is established on a 
slope, it is necessary to train the cordons toward the summit of the slope. 
Only pears grafted on quince stock, and apple trees grafted on Paradise or 
Doucin stock, can be grown in this way. Pear trees and apple trees grafted 
on their own stock are too vigorous, as they require (for otherwise they 
would remain sterile) more room than the horizontal cordon allows. One- 
year-old apple cions grafted on Paradise stock must be planted at a dis- 
tance of 3 meters from each other. One-year-old apple cions, grafted on 
Doucin stock, and pears on quince stock, must be planted at a distance 

*G. Ad. Bellair, "Les Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1891, 164. 



CORDONS 253 

of 4 meters from each other. The first year they are cut at a distance of 
about 60 centimeters above the ground, and near a bud, which is located 
on the side toward which the stem is to be inchned. In the autumn or 
in the following spring, these cions are gradually bent. But if the part 
beyond the bend must be strictly horizontal, it is necessary that the ex- 
tremity of the cordon be shghtly raised, in order to facihtate the flow of 
sap, and consequently the elongation of the cordon. From this time, the 
yearly growth of the cordon must be cut in such a way as to preserve two- 
thirds or three-fourths of its length. It is soon covered with branches, 
some of which are entirely fertile (that is, bearing fruit-producing buds), 
while the others, or sterile ones, must be cut away. This kind of treatment 
pr^ents them from obtaining too large a growth and thus stiU more de- 
stroying its fertihty." 

Excepting the grape, the training of the peach has probably 
been the subject of more hterature* than that of any other 
fruit; yet so different are the American conditions and view- 
points from the European that this technical literature has 
almost no apphcation in this country. The United States is a 
land of peaches. It is not necessary that we train them to walls, 
or that we give them any other special or pecuhar treatment in 
the way of training. Those interested in Old-World practices, 
however, or who desire to train peaches on walls or in houses, 
will appreciate the following extract from Thomson.f 

"Many ways of training and priming the peach and nectarine have 
been practised and recommended. French horticulturists especially have 
been very successful in training them in several ways characterized by 
regularity and neatness. The single-cordon as well as the multiciple-cordon 
systems are favorite modes of training in France. Modifications, partaking 
more or less of the French systems, have been practised and recommended, 
especially by Seymom-, in England. But the ordinary fan-system of training 
is by far the most generally practised and Hked. It is, especially under glass, 
the mode of training which the most successful forcers of the peach have 
adopted, and it is that which I recommend. Many grand old examples of 
peach trees imder glass are to be foimd in this coimtry, which have all along 

*Consult, as an example, Brehaut's "Modern Peach Pruner;" also Hartwig, 
"Die Kultur des Pfirsichbaumes am Spaliere," Weimar, 1886. 

tDavid Thomson, "Handy Book of Fruit Culture Under Glass," 152, with 
figures. 



254 SPECIAL MODES 

been trained on the fan principle, and that are yet in fine bearing condition, 
being well furnished from top to bottom with young bearing-wood. Taking 
a yotmg tree, which I have recommended for planting as the foundation 
of a fan-trained tree, different cultivators who are most in favor of this 
system of training would deal differently with the ten young growths [five 
branches on each side, and no leader, all arising from near the top of a 
short trunk] with which it is furnished. Some would cut them all back again 
to within five or six buds of their base; others would not shorten them 
at all, but would let them start into growth with as many young shoots 
as could be tied to the trellis without crowding them. What I have prac- 
tised and would recommend is a mean between these two. The two center 
shoots I would shorten back to half their length, the other eight shoots to 
be merely topped back to solid, weU-ripened wood. The cutting somewhat 
closely back of the two center ones makes it certain that two or three good, 
strong growths will start from near their base to properly fill up the center 
of the tree with leaders. Each of the other eight shoots should have all 
their buds removed by degrees, except one near the base, and one or two 
at equal distances between it and the leading bud, according to the length 
of the shoots; two buds to be left on the imder side — if the shoots are long 
enough to have room for three on the upper side — the buds on the one 
side to alternate in position with those on the other. These lateral growths, 
with the leader, are enough to lay a foundation to serve for the future 
full-grown tree. The lateral growths should be allowed to grow without 
being stopped. Should the leaders show signs of growing very vigorously 
at the expense of the side growths, stop them whenever they show such 
a tendency. This will cause them to make lateral growths freely, and 
equally balance the growth of all the young shoots. This encouragement 
of lateral growths, especially on the yoimg wood in the center of the tree, 
gives sufficient to furnish the tree without having recourse to the undesir- 
able practice of first allowing a few very strong leaders to monopolize the 
sap, and then to cut them down at the winter pruning. In this way much 
time is gained in covering a wall or trellis with bearing-wood. 

"A young tree thus managed on what may be termed a mean between 
the extension and the cutting-hard-back systems produces a comparatively 
large, well-furnished tree the autumn after it is planted, and one which 
requires very little or no winter pruning before starting it into another 
year's growth. If the summer disbudding and pinching of the first season's 
growth have been properly attended to, the tree will be so thoroughly fur- 
nished with young wood that all the pruning that should be done is simply 
to remove any shoots that would crowd the tree. The distance between 
the shoots should not be less than 3 or 4 inches. In February, 1878, I 



PEA CH- TRA INING 



255 



planted a number of young peaches and nectarines in an orchard-house. 
In the autumn not a single shoot was shortened-back, and at the close of 
their second year's growth the trees thoroughly furnished, in many in- 
stances, spaces of 18 feet by 13 feet, and a great many of them 16 feet by 
12 feet, besides bearing a good crop the season after being planted. There 
are some magnificent trees at Brayton Hall, which Mr. Hammond, the 
able gardener there, managed on the extension system, and consequently 
filled their allotted spaces and bore grand crops in half the time in which 
this could have been done by the old cutting-back system. 

"After the trees have grown and covered the space allotted to each, 
the system of pruning must be directed so as to continually keep the whole 




270. Fan-trained dwarf pear. 

tree regularly supplied with yoimg fruit-bearing wood. With a view to this, 
of course, the yearly removal of old wood in winter, and the laying in of a 
corresponding amount of young wood in sxmimer, must be carefully at- 
tended to 

"Some make a practice of cutting back the young bearing-wood to 
two-thirds its length. I do not advocate this indiscriminately. Where 
the shoots are long and not well-ripened, and the buds consequently weak, 
they should be shortened-back to where the wood is firm, and always to 
a strong wood-bud. Peach trees in a healthy condition have their buds in 
clusters of three — a wood-bud in the center, and a fruit-bud on each side 
of it; and to such clusters of buds they should always be cut when cut 
at all. 



256 SPECIAL MODES 

"Well-established trees that have borne hcavj' crops regularly, and 
especially those that have been forced early, generally make shorter and 
stronger growths, well studded with strong clusters of buds. In this 
case it is inadvisable to shorten them back at all. A watchful eye must 
always be kept on the lower portion of the tree, so that it is not allowed to 
get bare of young fruit-bearing growths. It need scarcely be said that, from 
the fact that it is the young wood that bears, the tendency is for it to be 
in greatest abundance at the top. 

"The best guarantee against trees becoming bare of young bearing- 
wood at their lowest parts, is to annually cut-back a few healthy young 
growths to two or three eyes, and allow as many of these to bud and grow 
as may be required to keep up the supply of young wood. This is an 
indispensable necessity, from the fact that portions of old wood have 
annuall}' to be removed at the top of the tree. In practice, all other things 
being equal, there is Uttle difficulty experienced in thus furnishing the 
lower portions of the tree with bearing-wood. All cutting should be effected 
with a sharp, thin knife; and whenever it becomes necessary to remove an 
old limb, the wound should be painted soUdly over with wliite paint." 

To show the nicety to which training may be carried, the fol- 
lowing extract from Du Breuil is mteresting :* 

"Training of the pear in vase- or goblet-form. — Trees in the 
pyramidal form are, in some situations, Hable to injury from high winds. 
When that is the case, the vase- or goblet-form may be substituted. But 
it is not otherwise to be preferred, for it requires as much room as the 
pyramid form, and does not present so great a fruit-bearing surface. 

"Trees in vase-form should have a diameter of about 6 feet 6 inches 
(and an equal height), so that the solar rays may act upon the whole interior 
surface of the vase. An interval of 12 inches should be left between each 
of the branches. Supposing the tree to be 20 feet in circumference, there 
should be about twenty branches at the base, from which to form the tree. 

"The branches may either be trained vertically, or made to cross each 
other alternately right to left, following an angle of thirty degrees, as 
showTi in Fig. 265. We consider the latter form preferable. The sap acts 
more equally throughout the entire extent of the branches, which also 
fruit more regularly, and the tree can better support itself when com- 
pletely formed. 

"The method of proceeding to develop the wood is as follows: Choose 
plants that have been grafted a year, and apply the first pruning; when 

*The Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit Trees." 



PEAR TRAINING 



257 



they have been planted out another year, cut them down to 16 inches from 
the ground. During the summer select five shoots, and maintain an equal 
degree of vigor by pinching. At the second pruning, cut off each of the 
branches to 16 inches from their base, above two buds growing laterally, 
so as to make each of the branches fork; lower the branches a Uttle and 
dispose them regularly round the circumference of the stem by means of a 
hoop. During the summer equalize the vigor between the ten shoots that 
have now been obtained. At the third pruning, cut-back each of the ten 
shoots to 12 inches from their base, to make them fork a second time. 
Incline the branches again, and equalize the spaces between them by 
means of two hoops, the 
uppermost being the larger. 
Treat the twenty shoots that 
have grown during the sum- 
mer in the same manner as 
the previous ones. At the 
fourth pruning, suppress 
only the third of the length 
of the new branches, and 
again incline them down- 
ward to an angle of about 
twenty degrees, then raise 
the ends of the branches in 
a vertical position at about 
3 feet from the stem, and 
keep them in that position by 
means of additional hoops. 
During the summer allow 
only one terminal bud to de- 
velop. When the time arrives 
for the fifth operation, cross 

the branches at the place of their second forking, directing them alternately 
right and left, inclined to an angle of thirty degrees. Fig. 266 shows the 
plan of a pear tree trained in this form, and how the branches should be 
crossed. The new extensions, obtained during the previous summer, must 
be left entire, and so on from year to year, until the tree has attained its 
proper size. The inclined position of the branches will cause them to put 
forth numerous shoots, each of which must be trained in a spiral direction, 
to be arrested only when the tree attains a height of about 6 or 7 feet, when 
it will be fully formed, and resemble Fig. 26.5. 

"As the tree increases in height, each of the branches must be grafted 

Q 




271. An old wall-trained pear tree. 



258 SPECIAL MODES 

together by approach [inarching] at each of the points where they cross. 
This will give great strength and solidity to the tree, and enable it to dis- 
pense with any other support when the wood is completely established. 

"The fruit-branches, which are not shown on the figures, are formed 
and kept in bearing in the same manner as in pyramid trees." 

Before leaving this part of our discussion, we may look at the 
pictures. Fig. 262 is a palm-leaf (or palmette) peach tree, ready 
for planting against a wall. This tree was on exhibition at the 
Gartenbau Austellung, at Hamburg, in 1897. Fig. 263 is a cor- 
don dwarf apple in Saxony. The wire is about 20 inches 
above the ground, and the single arm or trunk of the tree extends 
about 8 feet. Fig. 264 is a sketch of part of an espalier pear in 
the grounds of the Gartenbau Hochschule, near Berlin. Fig. 
267, Germany, is part of a three-arm candelabrum espalier apple 
tree. Fig. 268 is an old espalier Greening apple tree growing in 
western New York. The trellis has long ago been removed and 
the tree now supports itself, although extending over a space 
about 30 feet long. This is not a good specimen of training, but 
it shows how readily a dwarf apple can be made to assume a 
horizontal direction. Fig. 269 is a diagram of a wall-trained 
apricot. Fig. 270 is a dwarf pear trained in fan-shape on a wall 
in England. Fig. 271 is a pear tree covering the south front of a 
cottage in southern Bavaria; the photograph was taken in 
August, and the season's growths are seen projecting beyond the 
roof-line. 

On the summer pruning of dwarf-trained apple trees, a 
correspondent (G. A.) writes as follows in The Gardeners' 
Chronicle (London), June 24, 1916, the illustration, Fig. 272, 
being redrawn for the present purpose: 

"Summer pruning, done properly, has the most beneficial effect, espe- 
cially as regards cordon and espalier, or other trained trees. The illustra- 
tions. Fig. 272, A-D, will help to show proper methods. The branches 
should be kept at 12 inches' distance apart, and the leading growths short- 
ened to insure a proper breaking of the buds throughout the whole length 



PRUNING OF DWARFS 



259 




272. Summer pruning of dwarf-trained apple trees. 

First Year. — A, one-year-old extension branch; a, point of shortening at preceding 
winter pruning; b, leading or continuation of branch growth; c, lateral pinched to one leaf; 
d, short lateral growths that need not be stopped; e, side shoots pinched at fifth leaf; /, 
subsequent growths stopped at second leaf; g, short stubby shoot of three to four joints 
or leaves, not pinched; h, very short growth usually forming spurs naturally; i, points of 
winter pruning. B, natural spur; j, blossom-bud in center of leaves. C, shoot with bold 
bud at extremity; A:, to be left intact, being a blossom-bud. 

Second Year. — D, branch A a year older; I, continuation of branch or extension growth; 
m, side shoots pinched at fifth leaf and subsequent growths at second leaf; n, short, stubby 
shoots or spurs on one-year-old wood; o, one-year-old pinched side branches; p, growths 
from uppermost buds pinched first to five leaves and subsequent growths to two leaves; 
q, short shoot forming spurs; r, natural spurs advanced towards blossom-bud formation; 
s, points of winter pruning. E, spur B in year following blossom-bud formation; o, short, 
stubby shoot in continuation of spur. F, shoot C in year following bearing fruit at point; 
u, feeble growths, some of which push shoots in current or following year similar to C, and 
form blossom-buds at their extremities; v, shoot from base of truss of fruit. 



260 SPECIAL MODES 

of the branches, which, of courso, results in side shoots, with which our 
present remarks may chiefiy be taken i-o apply. 

"The side shoots, Fig. 272, A-e, should lie gone over during the season 
of early growth, when they have made six to (nght leaves, and pinched 
back with the finger and thumbnail to five leaves. The shoots will push 
growths from one or two of the upper buds, and these laterals should be 
pinched back to two leaves. If the trees are very vigorous, or the autumn 
wet, a third pinching may be needed. The immediate result is to keep the 
side shoots within bounds. The leading, or extension, shoot will be clean 
and vigorous, and the growths from the buds lower down will be well 
nourished. At the autumn or winter priming of these side shoots, four buds 
are left on each, A-i, if the tree be young and vigorous, or three will suffice 
on old trees or those of moderate vigour. The reason for leaving four buds 
is that two must make some growth, while the two lower ones make only 
a little wood and a few leaves, practically spurs, to develop into fruit- 
buds the following year. 

"The reason for pinching side shoots is to transform them into spurs, 
instead of allowing them to grow freely until mid-July or later, and then 
cut them hard back to two buds, causing them to push fresh growth from 
one or both, while giving a check to the tree by removing so much foilage 
at one time. The result is a thicket of shoots, for the close pruning in winter 
to a couple of buds means two strong shoots from each one then shortened, 
and the object of having bearing sjjurs near to the branch is frustrated. 
The thing is to get the spur and bloom-buds formed on them, for as soon 
as a blossom-bud has developed on a spur the growth extending beyond it 
may be removed, so as to make the tree neat and prevent over-crowding 
of the foliage. No buds beyond the bloom-bud are necessary to draw the 
sap into it, the spur being provided with its own foliage and also the truss 
of fruit that follows, while a blossom-bud cannot be forced into wood 
growth by close pruning. 

"The foregoing remarks apply to such fruits as are grown upon the 
spur system — apples, pears, and plums." 

TREES AND BUSHES IN POTS 

Many fruit-tress are successfully grown in pots or boxes, 
being used either for forcing purposes or for fruit-bearing at 
their normal season. Such trees, unless used for forcing, are 
also valuable as ornamentals and curiosities, although the 



POT-GROWN FRUITS 



261 






^i 



fruits should be of the finest quahty. Fig. 273 is an apple tree 
several years old, in full bearing. It is in a 16-inch pot. Trees 
of this size should ripen from ten to twenty-five apples. Pot- 
grown apples and pears should be dwarfs. Peaches and apricots 
on their own roots do well in pots. Cherries are usually worked 
on Mahaleb for this purpose, and plums 
are often grown on Myrobalan roots. Trees 
should bear in the third or fourth year. 

The following sketch from Wameken* 
cqjiveys a general idea of the method of 
trimming and training pot-fruits in the 
pyramid form (which is the most popular 
shape) : 

"The form of trees is given but little attention 
by many pot-fruit tree-growers, they looking only 
to large yields of fruit. Others, again, desire to give 
pot-fruit trees every conceivable artificial form, 
even espalier forms having been recommended. 
Although it must be constantly our aim to pro- 
duce a large fruit-yield, it is not necessary, thereby, 
to neglect the form of the trees; and a pleasing form 
with a large yield can be readily combined. 

"Form of the trees. — Our pot-trees must at times be set closely to- 
gether, and it is, therefore, not desirable to produce such large forms as 
demand much space; as, e. g., crown trees or trees of cup-shape. If, how- 
ever, it is desirable to train these forms in pots, their pruning may be 
studied in a pruning-book. We shall not describe this pruning, as we do 
not care to puzzle the beginner with so many artificial forms, but we 
shall suggest such simple and easily made forms as appeal to a rational 
culture, and which are the result of many years of experience. For such 
varieties of fruits as in their nature are suitable to the pyramidal form, this 
remains the best. We, therefore, give our trees, with advantage, only the 
following form. 

"Apples and pears we train to a narrow shape — in the full-grown con- 
dition a pyramid about 50 to 60 centimeters wide [a centimeter is about 
3i inch]. Peaches, plums, cherries, apricots, and figs we train to a pyram- 

*H. B. Warneken, "Die Kultur des Obstbaumes im Topfe," Frankfurt a. d. 
Oder, 1889, 33. 




273. Pot-grown apple 
tree in bearing. 



262 



SPECIAL MODES 



idal bush, which, however, should not be over 60 centimeters wide at the 
bottom. With peaches and plums, the more practical narrow pyramids 
recommended for apples and pears, also columnar pyramids, may be 
used. Grapes cultivated in pots are trained to so-called spiral cordons, 
which have a corkscrew-like, twisted stem carried on three stakes. 

"Preliminary training, in its first year, of a tree destined 
FOR POT CULTURE. — Peachcs and other fruits can be prepared for pot cul- 
ture in their first year. If we have personally budded our trees, we pinch 



^'^■' 





274. Pot tree in July of its second year. Same, showing how the 
tree is to be pruned. 

off the tip of the young shoot which appears in early summer, according 
to its strong or weak development, when it has grown to a length of 30 to 
50 centimeters. As a result, the buds at the side will develop in the first 
year into small shoots. As soon as these have formed four or five buds, 
they are pinched back to two or three buds. If the highest of these length- 
ening buds develops a strong shoot, and if the side shoots are backward 
and irregularly placed, the main shoot can be pinched again. The trees 



POT-GROWN FRUITS 



263 



thus treated during the first year have a stronger and more compact form, 
and all the lower buds are better developed. We gain time, therefore, by- 
making the best of the first year, particularly with peaches, and secure 
more rapidly bearing trees. 

"The one-year-old tree, generally smooth and imbranched, will be 
at our disposal. If, however, too early side shoots have been developed, 
they must be removed at their base on the stem, in order not to secure a 
confused tree. We now cut all such unbranched one-year-old trees of all 
fruits to the length noted for peaches, that is, 50 centimeters, and to a 
strong bud. With stone-fruits we now 
choose three to four buds pointing in 
different directions, beginning above 15 
centimeters from the ground, and cres- 
cent-Uke cuts are made with a sharp 
knife into the bark above each of these. 
If all the buds on these stems develop, 
we retain but sLx or seven of those on 
top and pinch off the lower ones, as our 
pyramids shall not branch immediately 
above the soil, but shall first make a 
stem 15 to 20 centimeters high, in order 
that the- fruits shall not be too near the 
soil and get dirty and be of lesser value. 
The uppermost shoot is fastened perpen- 
dicularly to the projecting stub (Fig. 274). 
The remaining side shoots we try to have 
equally strong, and we secure this by 
pinching back the stronger. All shoots 
have their points pinched off as soon as 
they are 30 centimeters long. From July 
to August we remove the stub which projects beyond the uppermost branch 
(Fig. 274). On apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plimis, and cherries we 
have nothing to do other than what has been mentioned, and to keep 
them in health and free from pests. If the plant-lice are not promptly 
removed, they greatly injure the young trees while they are yet develop- 
ing their structure, as they suck out completely the young shoots so 
that they dry out. If we have one-year-old stems of pears and plums 
which, during the first year, have clothed themselves all over and in a 
regular manner -with shoots, beginning 15 centimeters above the ground, 
■we cut these back to three buds. The stem itself is taken back one-third its 
length, and is then and ever thereafter cut to a spur or stub. 




275. Pyramidal gooseberry 
plant. 



264 



SPECIAL MODES 




"The second year. — At the winter pruning of the second year, the 
side shoots of seed-fruits are reduced to four to six buds and those of the 
stone-fruits to three to four buds. With the seed-fruits, we try to call 
forth weak shoots from all buds by means of cross-cuts above them. In 
the case of stone-fruits, this must never be done, as by 
this means the outflow of sap and the so-called bleeding 
would be induced. The stem, when strong and over 30 
centimeters long, is cut back to one-half its length, or to 
about six to eight buds. Weak and short shoots up to 20 
centimeters remain uncut. The summer pruning or pinch- 
ing-back is practised on aU trees. As soon as the strong- 
est shoots have developed six buds, they are pinched back 
to four buds, and this treatment is gradually given to the 
others as they develop. If the shoots should again grow 
out, the new growth is pinched back to two buds, and this 
treatment is continued all summer, so that every new 
shoot is reduced to two buds. This repeated pinching has 
for its object the thickening of the buds at the base of the 
shoot and to change them to fruit-buds. The bearing- 
wood in the seed-fruits can bear fruit for years, and it is 
therefore only necessary to induce the gradual change of 
the woody shoots into bearing-wood. 
"The tree in July of its second year is shown in Fig. 274. Z [in center] is 
the stub to be removed in July at the point S. At a are points at which side 
shoots are pinched back. Fig. 274, right, shows the winter pruning on the 
two-year-old tree. S, points at which all side shoots are to be cut. 1, 2, 3, 
buds which are to receive cross-cuts. St, the bud destined to lengthen the 
stem; it must be above the point of last year's cut, as at 0; St up to i, 
the new stub ; i, point at which the shoot is cut. 

"In the stone-fruits, the wood which has borne dies off, and it is nec- 
essary to have new bearing-wood each year. We must, therefore, prune 
in such a manner that continually new bearing-wood for the next year is 
formed. Therefore, on every fruiting branch of a peach there should be two 
leaf-buds at its base as a reserve. On the branches of the peach are found 
buds of varying appearance — thick roundish, and tliin pointed. The for- 
mer are flower-buds and the latter leaf-buds. It happens at times that a 
flower-bud stands alone, generally on thin bearing-branches, and again 
that a leaf-bud stands alone, as on strong shoots and young stems. We 
may also find a flower-bud and a leaf-bud or two flower-buds united, and 
finally a pointed leaf-bud between two round flower-buds. Our peach 
trees are therefore cut for the first time in the early spring, when even the 



276. 
Cup-shaped 
gooseberry. 



POT-GROWN FRUITS 



265 




beginner can distinguish flower- and leaf -buds. On many strong branches 
nothing but leaf-buds are foimd; on single, thin fruit-branches again only 
flower-buds. The latter, we may as well mention here, are the worst, as 
they must die from lack of leaf-buds. The best fruit-branches are studded 
with triple and double buds, and have at their base some simple leaf-buds. 
The majority of fruit-branches have only simple and double buds and 
at the point a leaf -bud. Excellent fruit-bearers 
are the very short cluster spiu-s but a few centi- 
meters long. These have at their tip a whole bou- 
quet of flower-buds and a leaf -bud in the center, 
and these are not pruned. Our task is, then, to 
keeg the shortest possible branches, and allow 
those to bear fruit which have leaf-buds above 
their flowers, in order to lead away the superfluous 
sap not necessary for the fruit. At the same time, 
these branches must have at their base several 
leaf-buds to which we may cut back and cause 
the production of bearing-wood for the next year. 
Long and thin branches, with but single or double 
flower-buds and a leaf-bud at the point, can bear 
fruit, but leave behind only bare places in the 
fall when they die. It is, finally, to be observed 
in cutting-back, that this should not be done to 
a single flower-bud, as otherwise the shoot dies off to the next leaf-bud. 
Those shoots on which the dead flowers fall off can be cut back immediately 
after flowering to the two leaf -buds at the base. An observance of these 
directions will make it an easy matter to prune peaches in the spring. 
The p>Tamidal form which is to be given must, however, always be kept 
in mind in determining the position of the branches to be saved. 

"The third and following years. — In the winter pruning of the 
third and following years, the shoots of the year before, on aU fruits, are 
cut back to three to four buds, and here it is that the pjTamidal form 
must be looked after. All trees clothe themselves with weak bearing-wood 
at the base of last year's stem, and the pruning of the stem-growth must 
be done accordingly. If it were cut too long, many of the buds would not 
grow, and bare places would result. Too heavy pruning would cause the 
formation of strong, woody shoots at the lower part of the tree. With 
our seed-fruit and stone-fruit pyramids in pots, the branches must not 
stand too thick or shade each other. At all times light and air must reach 
the stem in order to benefit the fruits. The removal of single large stems 
in later years will make this possible. It may also be mentioned here 



277. Training of 
gooseberry. 



266 SPECIAL MODES 

that the dry wood forming in the tree in later life should be removed. 
In the third, as in all follo\Nang years, the summer pinching-back is executed 
the same as in the first year, and in the stone-fruits, particularly in peaches, 
provide for the fruiting wood in the coming year. Thus we build out our 
pyramid in the pot, and by means of the regular use of the stub to tie to, 
the lengthening shoot is given a pleasing, erect form. The wood shoot will 
moderate with increasing fruitfulness, so that in later years it will not be 
necessary to cut it much, and pinching in the summer will be sufficient.'' 

Various forms of training pot-grown gooseberries, as grown 
by James Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, England, are shown in Figs. 
275-277. (The Gardeners' Chronicle, July 31, 1897.) 



CHAPTER VIII 
AMERICAN GRAPE-TRAINING — GENERAL SKETCH 

Pruning and training the grape are perplexed questions, 
even to those who have spent a Hfetime in grape-growing. The 
perplexity arises from several sources, such as the early effort to 
transplant European methods, the fact that many systems 
present almost equally good results for particular purposes and 
varieties, and the failure to comprehend the fundamental 
principles of the operations. 

It is sufficient condemnation of European methods, when 
appHed in eastern America, to say that the American grapes are 
distinct species from the European grapes, and that, conse- 
quently, they are different in habit. This fact does not appear 
to have been apprehended clearly by the early American grape- 
growers, even after the native varieties had begun to gain 
prominence. American viticulture, aside from that on the 
Pacific slope, which is concerned with the European grape, is 
an industry of relatively recent development. It was little more 
than a century ago that the first American variety gained favor, 
and so late as 1823 that the first definite attempt was made, in 
Adlum's "Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America," 
to record the merits of native grapes for purposes of cultivation. 
Even Adlum's book was largely given to a discussion of Euro- 
pean varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" 
mentioned only six "American hardy varieties," and all of these, 
excepting the Catawba, are practically not in cultivation at 
present. The Concord appeared in 1853. American grape- 
training, therefore, is of recent origin, and we are only fairly 
outgrowing the influence of the practices early imported from 

(267) 



268 GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 

Europe. The first decided epoch in the evolution of American 
grape-training was the appearance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," 
in 1864; for while the system which he depicted, and which yet 
often bears his name, was but a modification of European 
methods and had been outlined by earlier American writers, it 
was at that time placed clearly before the pubhc and became 
an accepted practice. An account of some of the early American 
advice on the pruning and training of grapes was gi.ven in the 
original "Pruning-Book," but it need not be repeated here. The 
modem systems of training the American vines were first 
fully described in my Httle book, "American Grape-Train- 
ing," 1893, and names were there given to some of the forms, 
these names now being current. 

The great diversity of opinion among the best grape-growers 
concerning the advantages of different systems of training is 
proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is 
better than others for all purposes. The most important factor 
in determining the merits of any system of training is the nature 
of the vine — as its vigor, habit, and rate of growth, normal size, 
relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character 
of fruit; the climate (particularly as to whether the vines are to 
be laid down in winter), the purpose for which the fruit is grown 
(whether for table grapes, for wine-making, for grape-juice) ; and 
other exterior considerations may also modify the character 
of the training. Varieties may thrive equally well under the 
same general system of training, but may require minor modifica- 
tions; so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, 
either for any system or any variety. One system differs from 
another in some one main principle or idea, but the modifica- 
tions of all may meet and blend. If two men practice the Kniffin 
system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that they prune 
and train their vines exacty alike. It is impossible to formulate 
rules for grape-training; it is, therefore, important that we 
understand thoroughly the philosophy of pruning and training, 



PRUNING VS. TRAINING 



269 



both in general and in the different systems now most 
popular. 

Pruning and training are terms often confounded when 
speaking of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. 
Pruning refers to such 
removal of branches as 
shall insure better and 
larger fruit on the re- 
maining parts. Training 
refei:s to the disposition 
of the different parts of 
the vine. It is true that 
different methods of 
training demand different 
styles of pruning, but the 
modification in pruning 
is only such as shall adapt 
it to the external shape 
and size of the vine, and 
does not affect the prin- 
ciple on which it rests. 
Pruning is a necessity, 
and, in essence, there is 
but one method ; training 
is largely a convenience, and there are as many modes as there 
are fancies among grape-growers. 




278. Grape shoot. 



THE SPUR AND THE RENEWAL 



All intelligent pruning of the grape rests on the fact that the 
fruit is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots 
of the season, which shoots spring from wood of last yearns growth. 

We may now examine the illustrations (in the absence of the 
vines) to understand the principle just laid down. A growing 



270 



GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 



leafy branch of the grape-vine is called a shoot; a ripened shoot 
is called a cane; a division of the trunk two or more years old 
is called an arm. 

A shoot, as it appears in the northern states in June, is 
shown in Fig. 278. The whole shoot has grown within a month, 
from a bud. As it grew, flower-clusters appeared, and these are 
c 




279. The bearing wood. — It is of the present season's growth. 

to bear the grapes. The shoot will continue to grow, perhaps to 
the length of 10 to 20 feet, but no more flower-clusters will 
appear. At picking-time, therefore, the grapes all hang near 
the lower end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in Fig. 279 
and Fig. 53, page 44. In Fig. 279, the old cane was cut at A. 
Then a shoot started from a bud at B and grew beyond BB, 
and another shoot sprang from the uppermost bud and grew 
beyond C. 



THE BEARING SHOOTS 271 

Each bud on the old cane, therefore, produces a new cane 
which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the 
season, this long ripened shoot or cane has produced a bud every 
foot, more or less, from which new fruit-bearing shoots are to 
spring next year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain, 
the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the coming year, and the 
crop would be a failure. The cane, therefore, is cut off until it 
bears only as many buds as experience has taught us the vine 
should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten buds, and 
perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or "rubbed off," 
next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick, or if the 
plant is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or 
more clusters, according to the variety. Some shoots will bear 
no clusters. From one to six of the canes, each bearing five to 
ten buds, are left on the plant each spring. The number of 
clusters a vine can carry well depends on the variety, the age 
and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and 
treatment. Experience is the only guide. A strong vine of 
Concord, which is a prolific variety, trained in any of the ordi- 
nary systems and set 8 or 10 feet from any other vine, will usually 
carry thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from 
one-fourth to one-half pound each. Twelve or fifteen pounds 
of marketable grapes is a fair or average crop for such a Concord 
vine, and twenty-five pounds is a very heavy crop. 

The pruning of the grape-vine, therefore, is essentially a 
thinning process. In the winter pruning, all the canes of the last 
season's growth are cut away except two to six, which are left 
to make the fruit and wood of the next year; and each of these 
remaining canes is headed-back to three to ten buds. The 
number and length of the canes left after the pruning depend 
on the style of training. A vine which may completely cover 
a trellis in autumn will be cut back so severely that a novice 
will fear the plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind 
the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear, and peach, does 



272 



GRAPES— 6E.NERAL SKETCH 



not bear distinct fruit-buds in autumn, but buds that produce 
fruit-bearing shoots the following season. 

The embryonic clusters of flowers may be discovered, how- 
ever, in the dormant buds if thin sections are made and a small 
magnifier used. The buds are differentiated in autumn. 

Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our 
vine in the fall of 1914 to two canes, each bearing ten buds (Fig 
280). We will call these canes A and B respectively. In 1915, 



Bio b9 e8 b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 C 



D Al a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 aIO 




280. Diagram to illustrate pruning. 

therefore, twenty shoots grew from them, and each of these 
shoots or new canes branches, or produces laterals. We will des- 
ignate the new canes of 1915 as Al, A2, A3, Bl, B2, and so on. 
Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of 
grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. These clus- 
ters stand opposite the leaves, as seen in Fig. 278. In the axil 
of each leaf a bud is formed which will produce a cane, and 
perhaps fruit, in 1916. If each of these new canes, Al, A2, etc., 
produces ten buds — which is a moderate number — the vine 
would go into the winter of 1915-1916 with, two hundred buds 
for the next year's growth and crop; but these buds should be 
reduced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1914. That 



THE GRAPE SPUR 273 

is, every year we go back again to the same number of buds, 
and the top of the vine grows no larger from year to year, 
although the trunk enlarges somewhat. Therefore, we must 
cut back again to two canes. We cut back each of these 
original canes, A and B, to one new cane. That is, we leave 
only Al and Bl, cutting off A2, A3, etc., and B2, B3, etc. This 
brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in the autumn 
of 1914; but the new canes, Al and Bl, which are now to become 
the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne at 
some distance — say 3 or 4 inches — ^from the 
base of the original canes, A and B, so that the 
permanent part of the vine is constantly 
lengthening itself. This annually lengthening 
part is called a s'pur. 

Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact 
position, however, although this diagrammatic 
sketch illustrates clearly the method of their 
formation. The common method of 
spurring is that connected with the 
horizontal-arm system of training, in 
which the arms A and B are allowed ^^^^ g 

to become permanent, and the upright 

canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., are cut back to within two or 
three buds of these arms each year. The cane Al, for example, 
is cut back in the autumn of 1915 to two or three buds, and in 
1916 two or three canes will grow from this stub. In the 
autumn of 1916 only one cane is left after the pruning, and this 
one is cut back to two or three buds; and so on. 

Thus the spur grows higher every year, although every effort 
is made to keep it short both by reducing the number of buds 
to one or two and by endeavoring to bring out a cane lower 
down on the spur every few years. Fig. 281 shows a short spur 
of two years' standing. The horizontal part is the permanent 
arm. The first upright part is the remains of the first-year cane, 
R 




274 GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 

and the upper part is the second-year cane after it is cut back in 
autumn. In this example, the cane is cut back to one fruit- 
ing-bud, b, the small buds, a a, being rubbed out. 

There are serious objections to spurs in any position. They 
become hard and comparatively Ufeless after a time; it is often 
difficult to replace them by healthy fresh wood and the bearing 
part of the vine is constantly receding from the main trunk. 
The bearing wood should spring from near the central parts of 
the vine, or be kept ''near the head" as the grape-growers say. 
In order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes to grow 
out each year back of the canes Al and Bl (Fig. 280), or from 
the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. 

These canes, C and D, are grown in 1915 — when they may 
bear fruit like other canes — for the sole purpose of forming the 
basis of the bearing top in 1916, while all the old top, A and B, 
with the secondary canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., is cut 
entirely away. 

Here, then, are two distinct systems of forming the bearing 
top for the succeeding year: either from spurs, which are the 
remains of the previous top; or from renewals, which are taken 
each year from the old wood near the head of the vine, or even 
from the ground. Renewals from the ground are now little used, 
however, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless they are 
headed-in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second year. 
It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods 
refer entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be 
used in any system of training. Spur-pruning, however, is grow- 
ing in disfavor among commercial grape-growers, and renewal is 
more or less used in all systems of training. For this reason, the 
old horizontal-arm or Fuller system, with renewals from the 
ground, is now seldom seen outside amateur gardens. 

Renewal pruning is illustrated in Fig. 282. This engraving 
shows the head of a vine seven years old, and on which two 
canes are allowed to remain after each annual pruning. The 



THE RENEWAL 275 

part extending from 6 to / and d is the base of the bearing cane 
representing, let us say, the year 1915. In the winter of 1915- 
1916, this cane is cut off at d, and the new cane, e, is left to make 
the bearing-wood of 1916. Another cane sprang from /, but it 
was too weak to leave for fruiting; it was, therefore, cut away. 
The old stub, h, J, d, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter 
of 1916-1917. In the meantime, a renewal cane will have grown 




282. Renewal pruning 



from the stub c, which is left for that purpose, and the old cane, 
bd, will be cut off just beyond it, between c and /. In this way, 
the bearing-wood is kept close to the head of the vine. The 
wound a shows where an old stub was cut away in the winter 
1915-1916, while b shows where one was cut off the previous 
winter. A scar on the back of the head, which does not show in 
the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two 
years ago, in the \vinter of 1913-1914. This method of pruning 
can be kept up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in 
keeping the stubs short the head ^vi\\ not enlarge out of propor- 
tion to the growth of the stock or trunk. 

PRUNING YOUNG VINES 

The time required after planting to get the vine on the wires 
or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when set, the 



276 GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 

variety, the soil and cultivation, and tlic system of training; but, 
as a rule, the training begins the second or third year, previous 
to which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old 
vines are often used for planting, although in the strong va- 
rieties, as Concord and Niagara, well-groAvn yearlmg vines are 
preferred. The strong-growing kinds are commonly set 8 to 




283. Concord vine one year old, before and after pruning. 

10 feet apart in the row, and the rows 8 or 9 feet apart. Dela- 
wares and other small vines may be set closer, although 8 feet 
is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back to two or three 
buds, as displayed in Figs. 283-286, which show four vines of 
different forms actually pruned by an expert grape-grower for 
illustration in this edition of this book. 

The first year, the young canes are usually allowed to lie on 
the ground at will, as seen in Fig. 287. In the fall or winter, all 



THE NEWLY SET VINE 277 

the canes but one are cut off, and this one is cut back to two or 
three buds. The vine, therefore, is no longer at the expu-ation of 
a year's growth than it was when planted; but in the meantime 
the plant has become thoroughly established, and the second 
year's growth should be strong enough to form the basis for the 
permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second year's growth 




284. Concord two years old, before and after pruning. 

is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the third season's 
growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth of the 
first year is sometimes carried to the wires to form the permanent 
trunk and arms, but it is only with extra-strong vines in good soil 
that this practice is admissible. From this point, the treatment 
of the vine is discussed under Grape-training (Chapter IX). 
We may pause, however, to examine other methods of 
handling the vine in its first year or. two, particularly under 



278 



GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 



garden or amateur conditions. Figs. 288 and 289 are from "The 
Home Vineyard," published as Fanners' Bulletin No. 156 
(United States Department of Agriculture, 1902), by the late 
W. H. Ragan. He writes that "the support for the young vine 
at first may be temporary, a mere stake or pole sufficiently 
strong to bear its weight and tall enough to traia it in an up- 




285. One-year-old Niagara vine before and after pruning. 

right position for one or two seasons. During this time it should 
be trained as a single shoot, from which all lateral or side 
branches are pinched off as soon as they are formed. These 
lateral or side branches will start at a point above each leaf 
and will be very easily broken off if attended to early. 

"At the end of the first year's growth of the young vine, 
treated as above directed, it may be expected to resemble 



YOUNG VINE 



279 



that in the illustration (Fig. 288) . A well-cultivated vine of the 
Concord or some equally strong-growing variety should then 
be from 5 to 10 feet in length. 

"Its treatment the following or second year will depend 
somewhat upon the training intended. In any event it should 
be cut back in the fall or winter of the first year to within about 




286. Two-year-old Niagara vine before and after pruning. 

2 feet of the ground. The proper place is indicated by the cross 
line in Fig. 288. Only the two upper buds should be allowed to 
grow for the second season, and they should be treated as the 
single shoot of the previous year was; that is, by training them 
to single shoots. If the vine, now in its third year's growth 
from layer or cutting, is a strong one it may be allowed to bear 
a cluster of fruit on each of the two shoots of wood of this 
year's growth. In the fall or early winter each of these two 
shoots (now called canes) should be cut back to about 2 feet 



280 



GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 



in length. The vine will then have its stem and two branches 
or canes cut back to an even length, as they are intended for 
the permanent horizontal arms of the vine that is to be. The 
vine will now appear something as shown in Fig. 289. 







"^s^^-ar',^^ 







■""s^^^l 









.S7 4 iic-wh plintcd Mne\ ard 

"The vine has now passed its second year in its permanent 
location and is ready for a more enduring support. This may 
be a stake, a building, or a trellis. The stake is now almost 
obsolete, having been superseded by the trellis, made cheaper 
and really better than the stake through the use of wire in its 
construction." 

WHEN TO PRUNE 



Grape-vines may be pruned at any time in winter or after 
the first hard freeze in autumn. It is the practice among most 
grape-growers in the North to prune as time permits from No- 



TIME TO PRUNE 



281 



vember to late in February, or even early in March. The 
sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early summer, 
causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe 
as "weeping," and to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six 
weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. 
It is yet a moot point whether this bleeding ever injures the 
vine, but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine is cut 
off 1 to 2 inches beyond the last bud which it is desired to leave, 
in order to avoid injury to the bud from the drying-out of the 
end of the cane. 

The pruning is performed with small hand pruning-shears, a 
small sharp saw, and snagging shears. The canes are often 




288. A method for a home 
plantation. — First year in its 
permanent position, the mark 
showing where the vine is to 
be cut back. 




289. The second year of 288, 
the two shoots or arms (for the 
horizontal-spur system) having 
been started. To be cut back 
at the tips. 



allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is com- 
pleted, although it is the practice with most growers who use 
the Kniflin system to cut the strings before pruning. The re- 
moval of the severed canes is known as "stripping." In large 



282 GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 

vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys 
or other cheap labor. The stripping may be performed at any 
time after pruning, until spring. It must be completed before 
the growth starts on the remaming parts of the vine, however, 
to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off 
the trellis. 

SUMMER PRUNING 

There is much discussion as to the advisability of summer 
pruning. This summer pruning is of two kinds — (1) the removal 
or "breaking-out" of the superfluous shoots, and (2) heading-in 
or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. 

The superfluous shoots are such as spring from small weak 
buds, or those that break from the old arms or trunk of the vine. 
Shoots that start from the very base of the old cane are usually 
weak, and should be removed. Buds in this position are shown 
at a a, in Fig. 281. The secondary or axillary branches, which 
often start from the base of the season's shoots, should be 
removed or broken out. These superfluous shoots are pulled off 
from time to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed 
off before the shoots begin to grow. 

The heading-in of the main growing canes, while desirable 
for the purpose of keeping the vine within bounds, is hkely to 
cause a growth of laterals that choke up the vine and that 
do not mature, and in those styles of training in which very Uttle 
wood is allowed to grow, the practice may prevent the develop- 
ment of a sufficient amount of leaf-surface properly to sustain 
the vine. Vines are often weakened by summer pruning. These 
dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, espe- 
cially by heading-in very lightly, and by performing it as late in 
the season as possible when new lateral growth does not start 
readily. The necessity of much heading-in has been largely 
obviated in late years by the adoption of high and drooping 
systems of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The 



SUMMER PRUNING 



283 



strong varieties, as Concord, Brighton, and Niagara, should be 
set 8 or 10 feet apart in the row, especially if grown under the 
Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very upright grower, and 
especially well adapted to upright training, may be set 8 feet 
apart, and Delawares are often set as close as 6 or 8 feet. Where 
the growth is large because of long seasons, vines are some- 
times set more than 10 feet apart. 

The only summer heading-m now generally recommended is 
the clipping of the tips when they fall over and begin to touch 
the-ground. This clipping is often accompHshed with a sickle or 
sharp corn-cutter. 

THE TRELLIS 

The autumn or winter following the planting of the vine- 
yard, the trellis is begun if the upright systems are used (see 
Chapter IX); but this 
operation is usually de- m^ 
layed a year longer in the 
Kniffin systems, and 
stakes are commonly 
used, or at least recom- 
mended, for the second 
season. In the South the 
trellis is made the first 
year. The style of trellis 
will depend on the kind 

of trainmg, but the main 290. Bracing the end post. 

features are the same for all. 

Strong posts of durable timber, as cedar, locust, chestnut, or 
oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be set 
between each two. If the vines are set 9 feet apart, the posts may 
be 18 or 20 feet apart, and a vine will then stand 4 or 5 feet from 
each post. (See page 289.) If the posts in the row are 18 feet 
apart and the rows 8 feet apart, about 330 posts will be required 




284 



GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 



to the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are 
driven with a heavy maul, although many persons prefer to set 
the end posts in holes, thinking that they endure the strain 
better. In all loose soils, however, posts can be made as firm by 
driving as by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm 
and stiff as possible, to hold up the heavy loads of vines and 
fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a common practice to 
lean them shghtly uphiU, for there is always a tendency for the 
posts to tilt down the slope. 

For the Kniffin systems, especially for the strong-growing 
grapes, the posts must stand 6 or 63^ feet high when set; but a 
foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright and horizontal 
systems. The posts should stand higher at first than is necessary 
for the support of the wires, for they will need to be driven down 




291. A poor way of bracing the post. 

as they become loose. The end posts of each row should be well 
braced, as shown in Fig. 290. A brace sometimes recommended 
is to anchor the post to a stone, as in Fig. 291, but this is 
impracticable. Fig. 290 illustrates the bracing of fence- and 
trellis-posts. The usual way of bracing is shown in the upper 
figure, but this method is faulty, the brace being too high up 
on the post and too steep. It should rest nearly against the 
center of strain on the post and in a less steep position, as 



TRELLISES 



285 




shown in the lower figure. A wire connecting the top of the 
second post with the bottom of the end post prevents the brace 
from pushing over the end post. Fig. 292 (after Ragan) shows 
two methods of securing the end post. The brace 1 is not ad- 
visable because it is in the way. Brace 2 is attached too high 
on the post. 

It is probably only a 
question of time when 
iron posts will come into 
genwal use; cement posts 
cannot be driven and 

, 1 • /-IT 292. The bracing of the end post. 

seem to be unpracticable. 

Second-hand steam-pipe could no doubt be used. Iron posts 
are not only durable, but they do not harbor insects and fungi. 
The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in 
the Kniffin training, which is usually No. 10, as the greater part 
of the weight is then on the top wire. No. 9 is generally used in 
the Chautauqua grape-belt, costing 2% cents a pound. No. 14 
is sometimes used for the middle and upper rows in the upright 
systems, but it is hardly strong enough. The following figures 
show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron and steel 
wires: 

Diameter 
No. in inches 

9 148 

10 135 

11 120 

12 105 

13 092 

14 080 

15 072 

16 063 



Weight of 100 feet 


Feet in 2,000 


Pounds 


pounds 


5.80 


34,483 


4.83 


41,408 


3.82 


52,356 


2.92 


68,493 


2.24 


89,286 


1.69 


118,343 


1.37 


145,985 


1.05 


190,476 



The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents a pound, 
and the galvanized — which is less used for vineyards — 33^ cents. 
Of No. 12 wire, about 160 pounds is required to the acre for a 



286 



GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 



single run on rows 8 foot apart , and about 500 pounds for three 
runs. Tho cost of No. 12 wiro to the acre, for three runs, 
tliereforo, is about 815 




293. Wiro-strctchcr. 



The wire is secured to tho intonnediate posts by staples 
driven in hrnily, so that the wire will not pull through readily of 
its owii weight, but still loose enough to allow of the tightening of 
the wires from the end. In other words, the head of the staple 
should not quite touch the wu-e. Grape staples are of three 
lengths, about l}<i, 13^^, 1^4 inches. The sliortest length is Uttle 
used. The medium length is used for hard-wood posts and the 
longest for soft posts, as chestnut and cedar. These staples cost 
4 cents a pound, usually, and a pound of the medimn length con- 
tains from ninety to one hundred of the No. 10 wire size. An 




294. Parallol wiro-strotoher. 



acre, for three wires, will therefore require, for this size, about 
nine or ten poiuids of staples. In windy regions, the wires should 
be placed on the windwanl side of tho posts, and on hillsides it 
sliould bo on the up-hill side. I'nless the vhios are very strong, 
it will be nocessitry to put up only one wire the first winter. 



STRETCHERS 



2s: 



There are several devices on the market for stretching the 
wires on a trelhs, such as the "conie-alongs'' used by hnemen 
and fence-builders. One is shoAvn in Fig. 293. The hook is 




295. ParuUol wiro-streti^hors in oponilion, the slack being pulled up hy 
the strap. 

secured to the post, and the wire is held in the clamp or jaws at 
the opposite end. The operator pulls the rope, antl when the 
wire is taut, slips the rope in the catch at a. The loose end of t he 
wire is then secured to the post, and the machine is removed. 
Other forms of "come-alongs" are shoA\ii in Figs. 294-296. 

There are various means of securing the wires to the end 
posts, but the commonest method is to wind them about the 
post once and secure them with a staple, or to twist the end of 
the wire back upon itself, forming a loop. The wires should be 




296. Westfield grip. 

drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit and 
leaves. To allow for the contraction of the wires in winter, 
some growers loosen the wires after harvest, and others 
provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeomans 
patent grape-vine trellis is a simple and effective lever-con- 



288 



GENERAL SKETCH 




297. Device for taking up the slack. 



trivance attached to each wire, and which is operated to loosen 
the wires in fall and to tighten them in spring. The end post is 
sometimes provided on the back with a square-headed pin 
which works tightly in a Ij/^-inch auger-hole, and about which 

the end of the wire is wound. 
A square-headed iron wrench 
operates the pin, while the ten- 
sion of the wire around the side 
of the post keeps the pin from 
slipping. This device is not 
durable, however. An ingenious 
man can easily contrive some 
device for relieving the tension, 
if he should think it necessary. 
As a matter of practice, however, 
the wires soon stretch and sag 
enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take up the winter 
contraction, and most growers do not release the wires in fall. 
It will be found necessary, in fact, to tighten the wires and to 
straighten up the posts from year to year, as they become loose. 
It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground firmly about 
all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept 
tight during the growing season, to prevent the whipping of the 
vines by the wind. This is especially important in white grapes, 
which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. 

A German knack 
for taking up the 
slack is shown in Figs. 
297 and 298. The 
device is made from 
heavy wire, and the 
trellis wire is caught 
up and wound about 

it, as seen in Fig. 298. 298. The slack gathered up. 




THE TRELLIS 289 

A notch filed in either end of the device prevents it from 
slipping. 

Trellises are sometimes made of slats for the home-garden, 
but these are less durable than the wire trellises and more 
expensive to keep in repair. They catch the wind, and, not being 
held together by continuous strands, are hkely to blow down in 
sections. Fuller particulars concerning the styles of trelhs are 
given in the discussions of the different systems of training, in 
Chapter IX. 

Spencer gives the follomng supplementary advice for the 
trellis' and general lay-out of the vineyard (the late John W. 
Spencer, known and loved by the school children of New York 
as "Uncle John"): 

"The vineyardists of the Chautauqua grape-belt have developed a mode 
of pruning and training of grapes which has many features peculiar to that 
district. The trellis is made of two wires, of No. 9 or No. 10 gauge, and 
chestnut posts. The posts are from 6 feet to 8 feet in length, and cost one 
cent to the Uneal foot at the railroad station. In later years, since experience 
has shown how important air and sunshine are in ripening the fruit, S-foot 
posts are most commonly used. Grape-posts should be somewhat heavier 
than those commonly used for wire fence — from a third to a half larger — 
and the heaviest should be sorted out for the end posts, for these bear the 
strain of the wire. An experienced farmer need not be told that they 
should be sharpened with a true lead-pencil taper, excepting the crooked 
ones, which should be so beveled as to counteract the crook in driving. 

"The usual distance apart for the posts in the row of grapes is one 
post to every three vines, or, in other words, 27 feet, and for ease in stretch- 
ing the wire, they should be in as straight a line as possible. The posts 
are driven, but a hole should first be made by an unusually large crowbar 
with a bulb near the lower end. After the posts are stuck into the holes, 
they are most conveniently driven by the operator standing in a wagon 
which is hauled through the row by a horse. A fair weight of maul is 
twelve pounds, and it requires a good man to swing one of that size all 
day. Iron mauls are commonly used because they are the cheapest, but 
one with an iron shell filled with wood "brooms" or frays the top of the post 
less than the iron maul. Eighteen inches is a fair depth to drive the posts 
on most soils. If the proprietor delegates the driving to another man, 
S 



290 GRAPES— GENERAL SKETCH 

he had better direct that 20 and 22 inches be the proper depth, for to 
the man swinging the maul the post seems deeper than it really is. 

"A vineyard should have a break or an alley at right angles to the 
rows as often as every fifty grape-vines, for the purpose of dumping grape- 
brush and shortening the trip when hauling fruit. If the vineyard is in 
fair thrift, longer rows will give so much brush as to be inconvenient in 
hauhng out. 

"The end posts should not only be the largest of the lot, but should 
also be well braced. The most common mode is the "hypothenuse brace," 
consisting of a stiff rail or a 4 by 4 scantling 12 feet long, with one end 
notched into the post about midway between the two wires, and the other 
end resting on the ground against a 2-foot peg of about the same size as 
the end post. 

"The wires [two wires in the old or standard Chautauqua trellis, but 
vineyardists are increasingly adding a third wire] should be strung on the 
windward side of the post, — that is, on the side from which the prevailing 
winds come. This is very important when the wind is blowing at 30 to 
40 miles an hour, and the vines have sails of many square feet of foliage, 
and perhaps three and four tons of fruit to the acre. The staples should 
be of the same gauge of wire as that used in barbed-wire fences, but about 
14 inch longer, unless the grape-posts should be of hard wood like locust, 
then fence-staples will be long enough. The bottom trellis wire is usually 
placed from 28 to 32 inches from the ground. Owing to the arm system of 
pruning in the Chautauqua grape-belt, the height of the lower trellis wire 
is permanent. The upper trellis wire is, in many instances, raised as the 
vineyard comes to maturity. The first year of fruiting, it may not be 
more than 24 inches above the lower wire, and year by year be raised to 
30 and 32 inches. It is not advisable to go more than 36 inches apart with- 
out putting in a middle or third wire. Each spring many of the posts will 
sag, and the upper wire will be slack, and many of the braces will be 
out of place. All of these faults should be corrected just before tying up 
the canes." 

If the three-wire trelHs is used, the bottom wire is about 
30 inches from the ground, the middle wire about 20 inches 
above the lower, and the top wire 16 inches higher, making the 
width of the trellis (bottom to top wire) 3 feet. The canes are 
not tied to the middle wire, unless they are too short to reach 
the top wire. The third wire gives greater stability to the trellis 
and makes the vines more secure. 



FASTENING TO THE TRELLIS 291 

TYING 

A good material for tying the canes and shoots to the treUis 
is raffia. This is a bast-Hke fiber that comes in skeins, and which 
can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about 20 cents 
a pound. A pound will suffice to tie 3^ acre of upright training 
throughout the season. Wool-twine is largely used for tying, 
but it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the 
winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the 
vinef for large commercial work, however, a good twine is 
much used. 

When wool-twine is used, the ball is often held in front of the 
workman by a cord which is tied about it and then passed about 
the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold 
its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag 
on the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after 
the old way of carrying seed-corn. Green rye-straw, cut directly 
from the field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer. 
Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire, is often 
used for tying up the canes in spring, as shown in Figs. 299-302, 
and explained on page 293. Corn-husks are also employed for 
this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark is sometimes 
used, but in most regions it is difficult to secure. 

Osier willows are much used for tying up the old canes in 
the spring, and also for summer tying, especially in the nursery 
regions where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier 
willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often used if they 
can be obtained easily. These willows are tied up in a small 
bundle, which is held on the back above the hips by a cord 
passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, 
if the person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as 
needed. The butt is first used, the tie being made with a twist 
and tuck; the strand is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is 
employed in like manner until it is used up. 



292 



GENERAL SKETCH 



It is very important that the old canes be tied up early in 
spring, for the buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. 
These canes are tied rather firmly to the wires to hold them 
steady; but the growing shoots, which are tied in summer, are 





299. Tying with wire. 
— First movement. 



300. Second 
movement. 





301. Third movement. 



302. Complete, 



fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary increase in 
diameter. 

Further advice on tying is given by John W. Spencer: 

"Tying is performed by women, boys and girls, and cheap men. The 
tying materials are wire, wool-twine, raffia, willow, and carpet-rags. By 
turning to Fig. 312 (page 305), it will be seen how the canes are arrayed on 



TYING THE VINES 293 

the two trellises after the Chautauqua method. The horizontal arms, at the 
lower wire, are more or less permanent, and they are loosely confined to the 
wire, always by string or willow. The vertical canes, which are fastened 
to the top trellis, are now universally tied with annealed wire of No. 18 
gauge, and cut in lengths of 4 inches. The economy in using the wire is the 
despatch in tying, and the fact that the work can be done on cool days 
when light gloves are necessary. The use of wire has been strenuously 
opposed by people who have never used it. The objection has been that 
the fine wire would chafe the cane so that the cane would break and fall 
from the trellis. Such instances occur rarely, and when they do, it is so 
late in the season that the tendrils of the vine are ample to hold it to the 
trellis. The cane should be tied to the windward side of the wire for the 
same reason that the wire was stapled on the windward side of the post. 
In using the wire-tie, the operator stands on the opposite side of the trellis 
from the cane, and follows the movements as illustrated in Figs. 299-302. 
This operation puts on the wire with the fewest number of movements, 
binds the cane snug to the trellis, and makes a loop that falls from the trellis 
on the following season, when the cane is torn away. The tying wire should 
be thoroughly annealed, so that it can be easily bent and give no springy 
reaction after being worked. This wire is also useful in tying thorny 
shrubs to a trellis when a mittened hand is necessary to hold the branches 
in place while the other hand makes the tie." 



CHAPTER IX 

AMERICAN GRAPE -TRAINING, CONCLUDED— THE VARIOUS 
MODES OR SYSTEMS 

The grape is trained for the purpose of keeping the vine in 
convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full 
share of space, light, and opportunity. A well-trained vine is 
easily tilled and sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, 
and it is only on such vines that the best and fairest fruit is 
uniformly produced. Some kind of training is essential, for a 
vine will not be satisfactory when it lies on the ground. 

Grape-training is described by one vineyardist as a process 
of hanging up the vine for air and sunshine, and he thinks that 
different ways of accomplishing that object may be equally 
good. He likens it to the hanging-out of a washing. He says 
that his mother and his wife each has her particular way of 
putting a washing on the line, and each is punctilious that her 
favorite method shall be observed. 

In essence, there are three general types or styles of training, 
which may be denominated the upright, drooping, and horizon- 
tal, these terms designating the direction of the bearing shoots. 
(1) The upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along 
a low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis 
from below upward, and the shoots are tied up, as they grow, to 
the wires above. (2) The horizontal systems cany up a per- 
pendicular cane or arm, or sometimes two or more, from which 
the shoots are carried out horizontally, and are tied to perpen- 
dicular wires or from post to post. (3) The drooping systems, 
represented in the Kniffin and post-training, carry the canes or 
arms up on a high horizontal wire or trellis, and allow the 

(294) 



THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS 295 

shoots to hang with Httle or no tying. To one or another of 
these types the various systems of American grape-training can 
be referred. 

There is no system of training which is best for all purposes 
and all varieties. The strong-growing varieties more readily 
adapt themselves to the high or drooping systems than the 
weaker varieties, although the Delaware is often trained on a 
comparatively low Kniffin with good effect. The high or droop- 
ing systems are of comparatively recent origin, and their par- 
ticular advantages are the saving of labor in summer tying, 
cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground 
can be tilled without endangering the branches of the vine. The 
upright training distributes the bearing wood more evenly on 
the vine, and is thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit; 
it keeps the top near the root, which is sometimes considered 
to be an advantage, and it is better suited to the stature of the 
small-growing varieties. If the soil is not fertile, it may be 
necessary to train even the strong varieties on the upright 
plan. 

Perhaps there is a greater temptation to neglect the vines 
in the drooping systems than in the others, because the shoots 
require no tying, and do not, therefore, demand frequent atten- 
tion, whereas in the upright systems the shoots soon become 
broken or displaced if not watched. For very large areas, or 
circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the vine- 
yard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps to be recom- 
mended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and 
skill as the other systems; but it will give better results than 
the others under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially 
those making long and drooping canes, are v/ell adapted to the 
Kniffin styles; but the smaller sorts, and those stronger kinds 
which, like Catawba, make an upright and stocky growth, are 
usually trained on the upright systems. But the merits of both 
systems are so various and even so little understood from careful 



296 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

tests, that it is impossible to recommend either one unquali- 
fiedly. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping 
systems are gaining in favor, and are evidently destined to 
overthrow much of the older upright training. This fact does 
not indicate that the upright system is to be superseded, but 
rather that it must be confined to those varieties and conditions 
for which it is best adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly 
supplement each other. The horizontal systems are occasionally 
used for choice varieties, but they are now little known in this 
country for field conditions. 

To the late John W. Spencer, a successful Chautauqua grape- 
grower who had observed many modes of training, the sub- 
ject appealed as follows: "The fundamental idea of grape-pruning 
is to find the proper balance between the energy which the vine 
possesses and the labor that it is expected to perform. What we 
treat as training is nothing more or less than spreading the vines 
to light and air, and there are many ways of doing it. Many of 
them are good, and some better for some varieties of grapes and 
for certain locations. As a rule, the tlifference in results of differ- 
ent methods of training is not worth the contention that it has 
provoked. The great point is to determine what the plant is 
capable of doing, and then to cut and train the top to corres- 
pond. Choose any system of training which you fancy or with 
which your help is the most familiar, and then leave your wood 
in the form most convenient for that system." 

Spencer gives the following notes on general methods of 
grape-pruning in the Chautauqua vineyards: 

"A large part of the pruning is done in the winter months — some 
beginning in the fall soon after the crop is harvested. Two grades of labor 
can be employed in this operation — the skilled and the unskilled. The man 
of skill, or the expert, goes ahead and bloc^ks out. He stands in front of a 
vine of far more tangleil brush than that in Fig. lUG (page 309), and, at a 
glance, tells by a judgment ripentnl by nuich observation just how many 
buds are required to ballast aiul not over-ballast the vine for another year. 
As the expert stands before the vine making the estimate, he might be lik- 



CHAUTAUQUA METHODS 297 

cncd io a niiin wciKliinK a liain with fiteelyardfl, pushing the weight hack- 
wanl and forward, notch \}y notch, finding the point of balance. The 
exix-rt,, witli his pruning HhcarH, uialtes a dive here and a lung(! there, a 
cHp at t.h(! boltoni and a Hnij) at l,h(! to[), and witii a f(!W more Wicrningly 
wild paasctH all wood is K(!V<(red from the bcuiring vine, but the numbi-r of 
burin desired to giv(! fruit another year an; l(!ft. The unskilled help, who 
re(!(!iv(!8 possibly a dollar a day less tlian the expert, follows the expcsrt, 
cutting the tendrils and other parts of the vine that are attached to any- 
thing but the trellis. Th(! n(!xt i)roc(!88 is 'stripping' the brush, and it is 
oner involving brute; force, ragged clotli(!S and leather mitt.ens. If the laborer 
does not put on a ragg(!(l suit, he will Ix; a{)t to hav(! one before he is done 
with his j(jb. Th(!re is a litth; knack even in doing this work to the b('st 
advant/age. The disniemlx'rcd vines still hang to the ui)i)er tr(;llis and 
often cling with considerable tenacity, and a particular jerk or yank, more 
easily demonstrated than describcid, is most effectual t.o land the brush 
on the ground between the rows. 

"The next operation is to haul the brush out to the end of the row. 
Many tools have been devised for this purpose, some of them involving 
considerable; (,'xpense. It is now the universal practice; to use a simple pole 
— one a little larg(;r t^han would be used to bind a loafl of logs, and not so 
large as r(;(|uired in binding a load of hay. It may be a sapling about 4 
inches at tlu; butt and 2yi inethes at th(; toj), and 10 to 12 feet long, "^i'he 
small (!nd is t,o be h(;ld in the; right hand, and the butt end to be i)uslied 
along tin; ground. A horse; is hitch(;d t,o this pole by a rope; drawn through 
an inch hole; about 4 feet from the butt or ground end. When starting at 
the end of the row, it seems that the straight pole would not gather any 
brush at all. It is a question of catching the first wad, and all the rest of 
the brush will cling to it. At the; (;nd of the; row, the brush is hauUiel to a 
conve;nie;nt pile;, wlie-re; it is to be; burneel, anej is elumpe-d by le;tting the 
end of the; j)ole; he;ld in the; hanel rr;volve; ove-r towarel the; horse;. If the; [jeile; 
hits the; he)rse, the; eipe;rat,ejr will se;e; thai- the-re; is not e;nough stre;tch of 
rope betwe;e;n the; pe)le and whiffle;t,re;e;, anel me>re; must be provide'd." 

The cost of pruning an aero of grapes is reported as follows: 

Blofiking out $1 00 

Cutting curls 1 50 

Stripping, rejmoving brush, tapping posts, stretching wire. . 1 50 

Labor of tying 1 50 

Cost of ties 25 

$5 75 



298 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS 

The upright systems are the oldest of the styles of American 
grape-training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two 
horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, along a low wire, and 
training the shoots from them vertically. These shoots are tied 
to the upper wires as they grow. This type was first clearly 
and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape 
Culturist," in 1864, and it became known as the Fuller system, 
although it was practised many years previous to this time. 

Horizontal- Arm Spur system. 

There are two types, or styles, of this upright system. The 
older type and the one mostly described in the books, is known 
as the Horizontal-Arm Spur-training. In this method, the two 




303. Horizontal-Arm Spur-training, showing one-half of the vine. 

horizontal branches are permanent, or, in other words, they are 
true arms. The canes are cut back each autumn to upright 
spurs on these arms, as explained on page 273 (Fig. 281). Two 
shoots are often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as 
shown in Fig. 303. These spurs become overgrown and weak 



HORIZONTAL-ARM METHOD 



299 



after a few years, and they are renewed from new shoots which 
spring from near their base or from the arm itseK. Sometimes 
the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even 
from the ground. 

The number of 
these upright canes 
and their distance 
apart on these per- 
manent arms depend 
on ^the variety, the 
strength of the vine 
and soil, and the fancy 
of the grower. From 
12 to 20 inches apart 
on the arm is the com- 
mon distance. If a 
vine is strong enough 
to carry a total of five 
canes and the vines 
are 8 feet apart, then 
the canes are distributed at intervals of about 20 inches. 
Very strong vines of vigorous varieties will carry eight canes 
on the two arms together, and in this case the canes stand 
about a foot apart. In autumn or winter, the cane is cut away 
and the strongest new cane which springs from its base is left 
for the bearing wood of the following year. This new cane is 
itself headed-in to the height of the trellis ; that is, if the upper- 
most and lowermost wires are 34 inches apart — as they are in 
the Brocton vineyards of western New York, where a modifica- 
tion of this system is largely used — this new cane is shortened-in 
to about 36 inches long. On this length of cane there will be 
about seven good buds in the common varieties. 

The diagram in Fig. 304 will aid to fix the form of the hori- 
zontal system in the mind; as also Figs. 305 and 306, drawn 




304. Horizontal arm. (Diagram.) 



302 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 




307. Permanent stem and horizontal 
arma, in a home-vineyard training with 
a many-wired trellis. 



with its permanent upright stem and its two horizontal arms, 
each with its three or four shoots or canes trained upward to 
the top wire of the trellis, each of which has borne one or two 
bunches of grapes. When autumn frosts suspend vegetation, 

the vine is ready for its an- 
nual pruning before entering 
upon its winter's rest and 
preparatory to bearing a 
full crop in its fourth year. 
It will then appear as illus- 
trated in Fig. 308. 

"Each alternate upright 
cane on the horizontal arms 
must be cut down to a short 
spur at a point near the arm, 
and the others cut off even 
with the top wire of the 
trellis. Its appearance will 
then be somewhat hke the 
accompanying illustration 
(Fig. 309). 

"The following spring a 
single shoot is allowed to 
grow from each of the spurs 
on the horizontal arms to 
be trained vertically to the 
wires above, and the eyes (from six to ten) on the canes that 
are left from the previous pruning will send out the fruit- 
bearing shoots for the current year. These fruit-bearing shoots 
are to be trained on the wires of the trellis, and may be allowed 
to bear one or two bunches of fruit each. If there are six eyes 
or buds on each upright cane, and there are three or four of 
these, the number of bunches of fruit to each vine may be 
estimated at from twenty-five to forty. The vine pruned as 




308. The fruiting and renewal canes. 



HORIZONTAL ARM 



303 



thus directed, with its fruit, in the fall of the fourth year from 
planting will appear as shown in Fig. 310. 

"When the grapes have been harvested and the season (late 
fall or early winter) has again come for the annual pruning, the 
canes that have borne fruit 
are to be cut down to short 
spurs, a few inches from the 
horizontal arms, and the 
shoots that have grown from 
th^ spurs of the preceding 
year are to be retained for 
fruiting the succeeding sea- 
son. In this way new wood, 
that is absolutely necessary w.Jfti«^fc- 
to the production of fruit, 
is always provided for each 
succeeding year, and that, 
too, within the limited space 
allotted to each vine." 

A similar method of prun- 
ing and training is described 
by S. M. Tracy in Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 118 (United 
States Department of Agri- 
culture, 1900), writing of 
"Grape-Growing in the 
South." It is sufficiently explained in Fig. 311. 




vn^vr::: 



309. 



Fruiting canes and renewal 
spurs after pruning. 




310. The fruiting and renewal canes. 



Chautauqua system. 

A modification of this horizontal-arm system is shown in 
Fig. 312. It is used in the vineyards of Chautauqua County, 
New York. The arms in this case are very short, and canes are 
taken out at only two or three places. The picture shows a 
vine in which two and three canes are taken from the end of 



302 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



with its permanent upright stem and its two horizontal arms, 
each with its three or four shoots or canes trained upward to 
the top wire of the trelhs, each of which has borne one or two 
bunches of grapes. When autumn frosts suspend vegetation, 

the vine is ready for its an- 
nual pruning before entering 
upon its winter's rest and 
preparatory to bearing a 
full crop in its fourth year. 
It will then appear as illus- 
trated m Fig. 308. 

"Each alternate upright 
cane on the horizontal arms 
must be cut down to a short 
spur at a point near the arm, 
and the others cut off even 
with the top wire of the 
trellis. Its appearance will 
then be somewhat like the 
accompanying illustration 
(Fig. 309). 

''The following spring a 
single shoot is allowed to 
grow from each of the spurs 
on the horizontal arms to 
be trained vertically to the 




307. Permanent stem and horizontal 
arms, in a home-vineyard training with 
a many-wired trellis. 




308. The fruiting and renewal canes. 



wires above, and the eyes (from six to ten) on the canes that 
are left from the previous pruning will send out the fruit- 
bearing shoots for the current year. These fruit-bearing shoots 
are to be trained on the wires of the trellis, and may be allowed 
to bear one or two bunches of fruit each. If there are six eyes 
or buds on each upright cane, and there are three or four of 
these, the number of bunches of fruit to each vine may be 
estimated at from twenty-five to forty. The vine pruned as 



HORIZONTAL ARM 



303 



thus directed, with its fruit, in the fall of the fourth year from 
planting will appear as shown in Fig. 310. 

"When the grapes have been harvested and the season (late 
fall or early winter) has again come for the annual pruning, the 
canes that have borne fruit 
are to be cut down to short 
spurs, a few inches from the 
horizontal arms, and the 
shoots that have grown from 
th^ spurs of the preceding 
year are to be retained for 
fruiting the succeeding sea- 
son. In this way new wood, 
that is absolutely necessary w.i 
to the production of fruit, 
is always provided for each 
succeeding year, and that, 
too, within the limited space 
allotted to each vine." 

A simUar method of prun- 
ing and training is described 
by S. M. Tracy in Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 118 (United 
States Department of Agri- 
culture, 1900), writing of 
"Grape-Growing in the 
South." It is sufficiently explained in Fig. 311. 




'fin^vrz^ 



Fruiting canes and renewal 
spurs after pruning. 




310. The fruiting and renewal canes. 



Chautauqua system. 

A modification of this horizontal-arm system is shown in 
Fig. 312. It is used in the vineyards of Chautauqua County, 
New York. The arms in this case are very short, and canes are 
taken out at only two or three places. The picture shows a 
vine in which two and three canes are taken from the end of 



304 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



each arm, making five canes for the bearing top of the vine. 
These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained on 
page 299. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out 
from these arms nearer the main trunk. One is taken out lq 
Fig. 312. The advantages urged for this style of training are 
the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the 
small amount of old or permanent wood left to each vine; the 
danger from strong winds is also reduced. 




311. Vine ready for pruning, as dLvsriibtd by Tracy; i, the stem; g, arms; 
d, canes; s, shoots; b, spurs. The faint lines near the bases of the canes indicate 
the points where they should be pruned off in the winter, leaving spurs for the 
production of shoots the following season. 

The following account of this method of training and pruning 
is given by Gladwin (Circular No. 16, New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Geneva): "This system is but a modifi- 
cation of the Horizontal-Arm Spur-system. Permanent arms are 
used to support the canes, which are tied yearly to a two- or 
three-wire trelHs. These canes may be tied obliquely or per- 



CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM 



305 



pendicularly. If two wires are used, they are usually 34 inches 
apart; if three, about 20 inches apart. The canes for tymg up 
the following year either develop du-ectly from the old wood of 
the arms, from spurs on the arms, or from the base buds of the 
past season's canes. This system has a strong hold upon the 
vineyardists of Chautauqua County, as the prmcipal grape, 
the Concord, adapts itself fairly well to training according to 
this system. The old arms should be renewed at frequent 




312. Chautauqua or Brocton training. 

inten-als m order to use this system to the best advantage, as 
in time they become crooked, gnarled, and the extremities often 
a great distance from the head of the vine." 



The true horizontal-arm training has serious faults, especially 
in the persistence of the old spurs, and probably vnW eventually 
give place to other systems. Aside from the spur-pruning, the 
system is much like the following, which is a modification to 
allow of renewal, and to which the reader is referred for further 



306 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

details. This modification may be called the High Renewal. 
It is a type rather than a definite method, for it allows 
of wide modification; it may therefore be discussed at some 
length, but many of the general remarks about behavior of 
vines as to age and otherwise will apply to vines conformed 
to other methods. 

The High Renewal. 

This is an upright training now extensively employed in the 

lake regions of New York and elsewhere. It starts the head or 

branches of the vine from 18 to 30 inches from the ground. The 

^ ideal height for most 

varieties is probably 
about 2 feet to the 
first wire, although 30 
inches is better than 
18. If the vines are 
lower than 2 feet, they 
are liable to be injured 
"^"*"' " ' '" by the plow or culti- 

313. The second season of upright training. ,i • 

vator, the earth is 
dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if the shoots 
become loose, they strike the ground and the grapes are soon 
soiled. 

A single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height, 
or if good branches happen to form lower down, two main 
canes are carried from this point up to the distance required 
to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes Y-shaped, 
as seen in Figs. 313, 315, 319. In fact, vineyardists usually 
prefer to have this head or crotch a few inches below the 
lowest wire, to facilitate the spreading and placing of the 
canes. The trellis for the upright systems nearly always com- 
prises three wires, although only two are sometimes used for 
the smaller-growing varieties, and very rarely four are employed 




HIGH RENEWAL 



307 




for the strongest kinds, but this latter number is unnecessary. 
The lowest wire is stretched at 18, 24, or 30 inches from the 
ground, preferably at about 30 for most vines, and the two 
upper ones are placed at distances of 18 to 20 inches apart. 

The second season after planting should see the vine tied to 
the first wire. Fig. 313 is from a photograph taken in July (say 

1914) of a Concord 
vine which was set in 
the preceding spring 
(1913). In autumn of the first year (1913) 
the vine was cut back to three or four buds, 
and in the following spring (1914) two of 
these buds were allowed to make canes. 
These two canes are now tied to the wire, 
which was stretched in spring following 
the planting (in 1914). In this case, the 
branches start near the surface of the 
ground. Sometimes only a single strong 
shoot grows, and to secure the two branches 
it is broken over where it passes the wire, 
and is usually tied to a stake to afford 
support. Fig. 314 shows this operation. A 
bud will develop at the bend or break, 
from which a cane may be trained in the 
opposite direction from the original por- 
tion, and the T-head is secured. 

The close of the second season after 
planting, therefore, will usually find the vine with two good 
canes extending in opposite directions, and tied to the wire. 
The pruning at this time will consist in cutting off the ends of 
these canes to firm and strong wood, which will leave them 
bearing five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will grow 
upright from these buds and will be tied to the second 
wire, which has now been supplied. Late in the third season 



314. Making the 
T-head. 



308 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



the vine should have much the appearance of that shown in 
Fig. 315. 

The third wire is usually added to the trellis at the close of 
the second season, at the same time that the second wire is put 
on; but sometimes this is delayed until the close of the third 
season. Some of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this 
third season, but unless the vines are very strong, the flower- 
clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old vine should 
never be allowed to bear heavily. 

It must be remembered, however, that both these horizontal 
canes, with all their mass of herbage, are to be cut away in the 




315. The third season of High Renewal. Concord. 

fall or winter of the third year. Some provision must have been 
made, therefore, for the top for the fourth year. It will be 
recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning (page 275, Fig. 
282), it was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow 
each year to form the basis of the top the following year. In 
Fig. 315, three or four such shoots can be seen springing from 
the Y-shaped part in the center of the vine. These shoots or 
canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire next spring, and the 
bearing shoots will arise from them. This process will be seen 
at a glance from Figs. 316-318. The first shows a full-grown 
old vine, trained on three wires. Fig. 317 shows the same vine 
when pruned. Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are 
left to form the top of the following year. The two stubs from 



HIGH RENEWAL 



309 




316. Catawba vine on the High Renewal, before pruning. 

which the renewal canes are to grow for the second year's 
top, are seen in the center. In autumn of the next year, there- 
fore, these two outside canes will be cut away to the base of these 
renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in the meantime, will have 
made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in this picture are 
really spurs, as will be seen; that is, they contain two ages of 
wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these stubs or 




317. Vine 316 after pruning. 



310 METHODS OF GRAPE-f RAINING 

spurs every two or three years at most, and to bring new canes 
directly from the old wood or head. 

If possible, the renewal cane is brought from a new place on 
the old wood every year, in order to avoid a spur. Such was 
the case in the vine shown in Fig. 282, page 275. Fig. 318 




318. Vine 317 tied to the lowest wire. 

shows the vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two ties are 
made on each cane. Fig. 319 shows a vine in which four canes 
have been left to form the top for the following year. The stubs 
for the renewals can be seen at the Y. It is customary to leave 
more than two canes, in strong-growing varieties like Concord, 
when occasion seems to require it. Sometimes four, and even 
six, are left. If four canes are left, two may be tied together in 
each direction on the bottom wire. If six, the two extra ones 
should be tied along the second wire, parallel with the lowest 
ones. These extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the 
trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, for the usual 
tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top 
and the lower buds may fail to bear. 

The length of the two canes varies with different vari- 
eties and the distance apart at which the vines are set. Very 



HIGH HKNEWAL 



311 



strong kinds, as Concord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve 
buds on each cane, especially if the vines are set more than 8 
feet apart. Fig. 320 shows half of a Concord vine in which 
about ten buds were left on each cane. These strong sorts often 
carry forty or fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but when 
this number is left the canes should be four, as explained in the 
last paragraph. 

In Delaware and other weak-growing varieties, twenty or 
twenty-five buds to the vine should be the maximum and only 
tw(i canes should be left; the number of buds is usually less. In 
short-jointed varieties, the canes are usually cut to the desired 
length — 4 to 6 feet — even if too great a number of buds is left, 
but the shoots which spring from these extra buds are broken 
out soon after they start. A Delaware vine which has made an 
unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be left 




319. Four-cane High Renewal. 

for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety 
which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a 
short but very stiff grower, is usually cut back to six or eight 
buds, as seen in Figs. 316-318. Fig. 321 is a good Catawba 
vine four years set. 

The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the character 



312 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



of the vine, without effort. He has in mind a certain desired 
crop of grapes, perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves 
enough buds to produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, 10 per 
cent of the buds for accidents and barren shoots. He knows, also, 
that the canes should always be cut back to well-ripened wood. 




320. High Renewal complete. Concord. 

It should be said that mere size of cane does not indicate 
its value as a fruit-bearing branch. Hard smooth wood of 
medium size usually gives better results than the very large and 
softer canes which are sometimes produced on soils rich in 
nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown wood is known 
as a "bull cane." 

A cane does not attain its full growth the first year, but will 
increase in diameter the second season. The tying, therefore, 
should be sufficiently loose or elastic to allow of growth, although 
it should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place. 
The cane should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to it, 
provision being made for the swelling of the wood to twice 
its thickness. 

The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it, 
or have attained firmness enough to allow of tying, and the 
same shoots are tied again to the top wire. Not all the shoots 
grow with equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone 
over more than twice if the shoots are kept properly tied. Per- 
haps four times over the vineyard will be all that is necessary for 



HIGH RENEWAL 



313 



careful summer tying. Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, 
but this neglect, with the High Renewal system, should be dis- 
couraged. 

This summer tying is mostly with green rye-straw or raffia. 
A piece of straw about 10 inches long is used, it usually 
being wrapped but once about the shoot. The knot is made with 
a twist and tuck. If raffia is used, a common string-knot is made. 
When the shoots reach the top of the trellis, they are usually 
allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba shoots stand 
nesirly erect above the top wire, and ordinarily need no atten- 
tion. The long-growing varieties are likely to drag the shoots 
on the ground before the close of the season. If these tips inter- 
fere with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with a sickle or 
corn-cutter, although this practice should be delayed as long as 
possible to prevent the growth of laterals. It is probably better 
to avoid cutting entirely. Some growers wind or tie the longest 
shoots on the top wire (as seen in Fig. 326) . It is probably best, 
as a rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and to clip 
them only when they seriously interfere with the work of the 
hoe and cultivator. 




321. High Renewal in fourth year. Catawba. 



314 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

In the Chautauqua region, noted for its grapes, the canes are 
tied to the third wire, and the tendrils of the lower growth soon 
attach themselves to the second or middle wu-e; the middle 
wire therefore bears a good part of the load of foliage and fruit 
and the third or top wire does not sag so much ; this distribution 
of the growing vine on three wires prevents the fruit being 
smothered by the upper foliage, and not so many canes are 
broken from the top wire by winds and other causes. 

' The treatment on slat trellises is essentially the same as on 
wire trellises, except that longer strings must be used in tying; 
but slats are not used except now and then for a very few vines 
in a garden. 

It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the High 
Renewal is borne between the first and second wires, at the 
bottom of the trellis. The lower wire is 24 to 30 inches high. 
The fruit-trays are set on the ground, and both hands are free. 
The fruit is also protected from the hot sun and from frost; and 
if the shopts are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken 
roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable that all the 
clusters should be fully exposed to light and air, and all super- 
fluous shoots should therefore be pulled off, as already explained 
(page 282). In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this pur- 
pose, to prune the canes which hang over from the top of the 
trellis. 

After a few years, the old top or head of the vine becomes 
more or less weak, and it should be renewed from the root. The 
thrifty vineyardist anticipates this circumstance, and now and 
then allows- a strong shoot which may spring from the ground 
to remain. This shoot is treated very much like a young vine, 
and the head is formed the second year (page 273) . If it should 
make a strong growth the first year, and develop stout 
laterals, it may be cut back only to the lowest wii'e the first fall; 
but in other cases, it should Be cut back to two or three buds, 
from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the 



HIGH RENEWAL 



315 



second year. When this new top comes into bearing, the old 
trunk is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below, if possible. 
A top will retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary 
treatment, and sometimes much longer. These tops are renewed 
from time to time as occasion permits or demands, and any 
vineyard that has been bearing a number of years will nearly 
always have a few vines in process of renewal. The reader should 
not receive the impression, however, that the life or vitality of a 
vine is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear for 




322. A Concord vine thirty years old. 

twenty years or more without renewal; but the head after a 
time comes to be large and rough and crooked, and often 
weakened by scars, and better results are likely to be secured if 
a new clean vine takes its place. Fig. 322 shows the great stump 
of a Concord vine thirty years old, and which is stiU iti thrifty 
bearing condition. 

The High Renewal is extensively used in the lake region of 
western New York for many varieties. It is particularly weU 
adapted to Delaware, Catawba, and other weak or short varie- 
ties. When systematically pursued, it gives fruit of the highest 



316 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

excellence. This High-Renewal training, like all the low upright 
systems, allows the vines to be laid down easily in winter, which 
is an important consideration in many parts of Canada and in 
the colder northern states. It is often, but erroneously, called 
the horizontal-arm system. 

Keuka system. 

A form of training employed in the Keuka Lake district of 
New York and known locally as the Keuka system, is a modi- 
fication of the High Renewal (Figs. 323-325). It is described 




323. Keuka system. A ten-year-old vine after cutting. 

as follows in Circular No. 16 of the New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station (Geneva) by Gladwin: 

"The first year after setting, the vines are allowed to grow 
at random on the ground. At the beginning of the second year 
they are pruned back to two buds. If the vine is a strong grower 
it is tied this season to the lower wire of the trellis, which is 
from 18 to 20 inches above the ground. The beginning of the 
third year finds the vines cut back to a stem or trunk 10 to 
20 inches high, tied to the lower wire. The fourth year the vine 
consists of the short stem and two or three canes, each of five 
to eight buds, laid along the lower wire and tied. The shoots 
from these are carried perpendicularly to the second and third 



KEUKA SYSTEM 



317 



wires which are about 20 inches apart, as fast as growth will 
permit. The following year all the wood is cut away except 
two or three canes that have grown from the buds nearest the 




324. Vine 323 after stripping. 



head of the trunk. These canes are of from five to eight buds. 
The number retained after each pruning depends upon the 
variety and vigor of the vine. If two canes are left they are 
tied to the right and left along the lower wire; if three, the 




325. Vine 323 after tying. 

third is carried to the second wire and then tied along it. As 
there is a tendency for long spurs to result from the repeated 
renewals secured in this manner, frequently buds from the head 
of the stem are allowed to develop and fruiting wood secured 



318 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



from them. Thus the fruituig wood arises from near the head 
of the trunk, and as this is usually short almost the entire vine 
is renewed annually. When the trunk approaches the end of 
its usefulness a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground and 
this eventually becomes the trunk, the old one being cut away. 
The advantages claimed for this method of training are the low 
head, the reduction of the old wood to a minimum, and the ease 
of getting a complete renewal." 

Fan-training. 

A system much used a few years ago, and still sometimes seen, 
is one that renews back nearly to the ground each year, and 
carries the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped form This system 




326. Fan-trained Concord. 

has the advantages of dispensing with much of the old wood, or 
trunk, and facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold 
climates. On the other hand, it has the handicap of bearing the 
fruit too low — unless the lower clusters are removed — and 
making a vine of inconvenient shape for tying; it maintains too 
many and too long spurs. It is little used at present. 



FAN-TRAIXIXG 



319 



A fan-trained vine before pruning is shown in Fig. 326. The 
same vine pruned is shown m Fig. 327, although it is by no 
means a pattern plant. This vine has not been properly renewed, 
but bears long crooked spurs, from which the canes arise. The 
spurs should be kept very short, and they should be entirely 




327. The vine 326 pruned. 

Femoved every two or three years, as explained in the foregoing 
discussion of the High-Renewal training. 

The shoots are allowed to take their natural course, being 
tied to any wire near which they chance to grow, finally lopping 
over the top wire. Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied 
horizontally to the wires, and this is probably the better prac- 
tice. Two canes may be tied in each direction on the lower wire, 
or the two inner canes may be tied down to the second wire. In 
either case, the vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except 
that the trunk is shorter. 

Another form of fan-training, which is a modification of the 
Kelly's Island system, is shown in Fig. 328, and is thus described 



320 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

by D. S. Marvin, "Popular Gardening," iii, 140: "The engrav- 
ing represents a sample vine ten years old pruned. It will be 
observed that the right-hand cane is two-thirds of it old wood, 
to be all cut away at the next pruning. The old canes that bore a 
heavy crop of fruit have been pruned away, all but the stumps 
of the right-hand cane. Three or more buds at the end of the 
cane, as the vine may be strong or weak, are to be left to bear 




328. Marvin's fan-training. 

fruit, the others to be rubbed off, except enough to form new 
canes near the ground, to renew next year's bearing canes. . . . 
The original Kelley's Island system was one long cane or arm, 
with spurs for next year's canes at the surface of the soil, but it 
was found objectionable because it is always difficult to get the 
fruit-spurs to grow uniform upon long canes, the first and the 
last canes growing too strong at the expense of the center canes." 

THE DROOPING SYSTEMS 

In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard in the Hudson 
River Valley. A neighbor, William Kniffin, was a stone-mason 
with a few acres of land to which he devoted his attention in the 
leisure seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to plant a 



WILLIAM KNIFFIN 321 

few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and, succeeding beyond his 
expectations, the plantation was increased to a respectable vine- 
yard, and Kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority on 
grape-culture. Those were the pioneer days in commercial 
grape-growing in North America, and there were no undisputed 
maxims of cultivation and training. If any system of close 
training and pruning was employed, it was probably the old 
Horizontal-Arm Spur system, or something like it. 

One day a large limb broke from an apple tree and fell on a 
grajiie-vine, tearing off some of the canes and crushing the vine 
into a singular shape. The vine was thought to be ruined, but it 
was left until the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit 
matured, its large size and handsome appearance attracted 
attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard. Mr. Kniffin 
was an observant man, and he inquired into the cause of the 
excellent fruit. He noticed that the vine had been pruned, 
and that the best canes stood out horizontally. From this sug- 
gestion he developed the Four-Cane system of training which 
now bears his name. In 1854, the system had attracted the 
attention of those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and 
thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson Valley, where it is 
today, with various modifications, the chief method of grape- 
training. Its merits have become known beyond its original 
valley, and it is now widely practised. William Kniffin died 
at his home in Clintondale, Ulster County, New York, June 13, 
1876, at fifty-seven years of age. 

The true or Four-Cane Kniffin system. 

The true Kniffin system, very nearly as practised by its 
originator, is shown in Fig. 329. A single stem or trunk is 
carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are taken out 
from side spurs at each wire. Mr. Kniffin wanted short canes, 
and cut them back to about six buds on each wire. But most 
growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the 
u 



THE KNIFFIN TYPE 



323 



lower ones, as seen in the illustration. The bearing shoots are 
allowed to hang at will, so that no summer tying is necessary; 
this is the distinguishing mark of the various Kniffin systems. 
The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes are tied to the 
wires in spring. 

This system possesses the great advantage, therefore, of 
requiring Httle labor in the busy days 
of the growing season; and the vines 
are easily tilled, and if the rows are 9 
or IP feet apart, currants or other bush- 
fruits can be grown between. The 
system is especially adapted to the 
strong varieties of grapes, particularly 
to those which are most drooping. 

The pruning of the Kniffui vine 
consists in cutting off all the wood 
except a single cane from each spur, 
and maintaining spurs for providing 
the fruiting canes of the next year. 
Fig. 330 illustrates the process. This 
is the same vine shown with the full 
extent of wood in Fig. 329. The droop- 
ing shoots shown in that illustration 
bore the grapes, say, of 1915; and now, 
in the winter of 1915-1916, they are 
all to be cut away, with the horizontal 
old canes from which they grew, except 
only the four canes hanging nearest 
the main trunk. Fig. 331 shows a 
Four-Arm Kniffin pruned and tied. 

It is not obligatory that the canes left after the pruning 
should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen that these 
may be weak; but, other things being equal, these canes are 
preferable because their retention keeps the old spurs short. 




330. Vine 329 pruned. 



324 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

The careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots 
that start from this point, that a strong cane may be secured. 
It is desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every 
three or four years, a new cane being brought out again from 
the main body or trunk. There is little expectation, however, 
that there shall be such a complete renewal pruning as that 
practised in the High Renewal. 

It will be seen that the drooping canes in Fig. 330 are shorter 
than they were originally, as shown in Fig. 329. They have been 
cut back. The length at which these canes shall be left is a moot 

point. Much depends on 
the variety, the distance 
between the wires, the 
strength of the soil, and 
other factors. Nearly all 
growers now agree that 
the upper canes should 
be longer than the lower 
ones, although equal 
canes are still used in some places. In strong varieties, as 
Worden, each of the upper canes may bear ten buds and each 
of the lower ones five. This gives thirty buds to the vine. 
Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above, and only 
four below. 

These four pruned canes are usually allowed to hang in 
winter, but are tied on the wires before the buds swell in spring. 
They are stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by 
one or two ties on each cane. The shoots that spring from these 
horizontal canes stand upright or oblique at first, but they soon 
fall over with the weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the 
ground, the ends may be clipped with a sickle, corn-cutter, or 
scythe, although this is not always done, and is not necessary 
unless the canes interfere with tillage. There is no summer 
pinching or pruning, although the superfluous shoots should be 




331. Form of the usual Four-Cane KnifSn. 



THE KNIFFIN TYPE 



325 



broken out, as in other syste-ms. It is imperative, for best results 
in old vines, that the shoots do not grow out horizontally on the 
wii'es. They should be torn off the wires once or twice in the 
sununer, so that they will hang free. 

Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. The end 
posts are usually set in holes, rather than driven, to render them 
solid, and they should always be well braced. The intermediate 
posts are driven, and they usually stand between alternate vines, 
or 20 feet apart if the vines are 10 feet apart — which is a 
common distance for the most vigorous varieties. For the 











332. A common but poor type of Kniffin. 

strong-growing varieties, the top wire is placed from 5^2 to 6 
feet above the ground. Five feet 9 inches is a popular height. 
The posts will heave sufficiently to bring the height to 6 feet, 
although it is best to "tap" the posts every spring with a maul 
to drive them back and make them firm. The lower wire is 
usually placed at 3}/2 feet above the ground. Delawares, if 
trained Kniffin, should not stand above 5 feet 4 inches, or at 
most 5 feet 6 inches. 

Strong vines on good soil are often put on the trellis the 
second year, although it is a practice with some growers, to 



326 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



stake them the second season, as already explained (page 277), 
and put them on the wires the third season. The year following 
the tying on the trelHs, the vine should bear a partial crop. The 
vine is usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of 
training, although it is the practice of some growers, especially 
outside the Hudson Valley, to stop the trunk at the lower wire 
the first year of permanent training, and to carry it to the top 
wire the following year. 

Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully as high as 
from other species of training, and perhaps even higher. 

Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin. 

Various modifications of this original Four-Cane Kniffin are 
in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly apphed to a rack 

trelUs. In such cases, 
several canes are allowed 
to grow where only two 







should have been left. 
Fig. 332 is a common but 
poor style of Kniffin. It 
differs from the type in 
the training of the young 
wood. These shoots, 
instead of being allowed 
to hang at will, are 
carried out horizontally 
and either tied to the 
wire or twisted around 
it. The advantage urged for this modification is the little injury 
by wind, but, as a matter of practice, it affords less protection 
than does the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the shoots 
from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire, and the shoots 
from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower ware. 
There are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of 



333. The Y-trunk Kniffin. 



328 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



the shoots — it makes unnecessary labor, the canes are likely to 
make wood or "bull canes" (see page 312) at the expense of 
fruit, and the fruit is bunched together on the vines. The true 
and successful Kniffin does not allow the growing shoots to run 

out on the wires in this 
way. 

Another common modi- 
fication of the Four-Cane 
Kniffin is that shown in 
Fig, 333, in which a crotch 
or Y is made in the trunk. 
This crotch is used in the 
idea that the necessary 
sap supply is thereby more 
readily deflected into the 
lower arms than by the 
system of side-spurring on 
a straight or continuous 
trunk. This is probably a 
fallacy, and may have 
arisen from the attempt 
to grow as heavy canes 




339. Third year of strongest vine, or 
fourth year of ordinary vine. 




340. The pruning of 339. 



on the lower wires as on the upper one. It is a later adaptation 
of the Kniffin principle. 

This Y-trunk Kniffin is explained in its various stages in 
Figs. 334—340, the cross-marks indicating where cuts are to 
be made. 

If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both 
wires, what may be called the Double Kniffin will probably be 
found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are brought from 
the root, each supplying a single wire only (Figs. 341, 342). 
The trunks are often tied together to hold them in place. This 
is sometimes called the Improved Kniffin; but it is undoubtedly 
surpassed by both the single-stem and the umbrella forms. 



MODIFIED KNIFFINS 



329 



The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella system. 

Inasmuch as the greater part of the fruit in the Four-Cane 
Kniffin is borne on the upper wire, the question arises whether 
it would not be better to dispense with the lower tier of canes 
and cut the upper ones longer. This modification is now em- 
ployed to a considerable extent, and has come to be the prevail- 
ing system in parts of the Hudson Valley. Fig. 343 explains the 
forai. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk is tied to the lower 
wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing nine to fifteen 
bud^ are left on the upper wire. These canes are tied to the 
upper wire, and they 
are then bent down, 
hoop-like, to the lower 
wire, where the ends 
are tied. In some 
cases, the lower wire 
is dispensed with, but 
this is not advisable; 
this wire holds the 
vine in place against 
the winds, and pre- 
vents the too violent 
whipping of the hang- 
ing shoots. In the 
growing season, re- 
newal canes are taken 
from the spurs in the 
same way as in the or- 
dinary Kniffin. Some 
growers retain short back arms to provide strong renewal wood, 
especially when the growth of the vine is not very vigorous. 

This species of training reduces the amount of leaf-surface 
to a minimum, and every precaution must be taken to insure a 
healthy leaf-growth. It will probably not allow of the successful 




341. Double Kniffin. 




342. Double Kniffin after pruning. 




330 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

girdling of the vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity 
and augmenting the size of the fruit (page 181). Yet heavy crops 
can be obtained from it, if Hberal fertihzing and good cultiva- 
tion are employed, and the fruit is nearly always first-class. 

Another type of 
Umbrella training has 
five main canes instead 
of two. Except in very 
strong vines, this top 
is too heavy, and it is 

343. Two-Cane or Umbrella Kniffin. probably never SO 

good as the other (Fig. 343), if the highest results are desired; 
but for the grower who does not practise high cultivation it is 
probably a safer system than the other. 

The Low or One-Wire Kniffin. 

A modification of this Umbrella system is sometimes used 
in which the trellis is only 3 or 4 feet high and comprises but 
a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied out in each 
direction, and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially the 
same way as in the true or High Kniffin system. 

The advantages urged for this system are the protection of 
the grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to the small 
extent of bearing wood, the ease of laying down the vines in 
winter, the readiness with which the top can be renewed from 
the root as occasion demands, and the cheapness of the trellis. 

The Six-Cane Kniffin. 

Some old vineyards in New York are trained on a six-cane 
or three-wire system. The general pruning and management of 
these vines do not differ from that of the common Kniffin. Very 
strong varieties, that can carry an abundance of wood, may be 
profitable on this style of training, but it cannot be recom- 
mended. A Concord vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 



ARBOR KNIFFINS 



331 



295 vines, trained in this fashion, was still thrifty and pro- 
ductive when this book was first written. Twice it had pro- 
duced crops of six tons. 

Eight-Cane Kniffin. 

Eight and even ten canes are sometimes left on a single 
trunk, and are trained out horizontally or somewhat obhquely, 
as shown in the accompanymg diagram (Fig. 344). Unless these 
canes are cut back to four or five buds each, the vine carries 
too much wood and fruit. This system allows of close planting, 
but the trellis is too expensive. The trunk is soon overgrown 
with spurs, and it is likely to become prematurely weak. This 
style is rarely used. 

Caywood, Overhead,- or Arbor Kniffin. 

A curious modification of the Kniffin is employed somewhat 
on the Hudson. The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead 
arbor, as shown in Figs. 345, 346. The trellis is 6 feet above the 
ground, and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the 
same plane. The central wire runs from post to post, and one 

on either side is 
attached to the end of 
a 3-foot cross-bar, as 
represented in Fig. 

345. The rows are 9 
feet apart, and the 
vines and posts 12 

- feet apart in the row. 
Contiguous rows are 
braced by a connect- 
ing-pole, as in Fig. 

346. The trunk of the 
vine ends in a T- 
shaped head. From 




344. Eight-Cane KnifEn. (Diagram.) 



332 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



this T-head, five canes are carried out from spurs. It was 
formerly the practice to carry out six canes, one in each direc- 
tion on each wire, but this was found to supply too much wood. 

Now two canes are carried in 
one direction and three in the 
other; and the positions of these 
sets are alternated each year, 
^M<^ if possible. The canes left after 
the winter pruning are tied 
along the wires in spring, as in 
the Kniffin, and the shoots hang 
over the "wires. 

The chief advantage of this 
training is that it allows of the 
growing of bush-fruits between 
the rows, as seen in Fig. 346. 
It is also said that the clusters 
hang so free that the bloom is 
not injured by the twigs or 
leaves, and the fruit is protected 
Every post must be large and firmly set, 




345. Overhead Kniffin. 



from sun and frost 

however, adding to the cost of the trellis. 

Several styles similar to this are in use, one of the best being 
the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this system the trellis 
, is low, not exceed- 
ing 4 or 5 feet, and 
the vines cover a 
flat - topped plat- 
form 2 or 3 feet 
wide. By midsum- 
mer the droop- 
ing shoots have 
reached the 
ground, making a 




346. An Overhead Kniffin, with currants underneath. 



KNIFFIN MODIFICATIONS 



333 



continuous drapery of foliage, as seen in Fig. 347. 
is probably not widely practised. 



This system 



The Cross-Wire system. 

Another high Kniffin training is the Cross-Wire, represented 
in Fig. 348. Small posts are set 8 feet apart each way, and a 
single wire runs from the top of post to post — Q}/^ feet from the 
ground — in each direction, forming a check-row system of 
overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at the foot of the stake, 
to which the trunk is tied for support. Four canes are taken 



^'^:?f^^ 










347. Crittenden training in the original vineyard. St. Joseph, Mich 



from spurs on the head of the trunk, one for each of the radi- 
ating wires. These canes are cut to 33/^ or 4 feet in length, and 
the bearing shoots droop as they grow. Fig. 348 shows this 
training as it appears some time after the leaves start in spring. 
Later in the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, 
and a person standing at a distance sees an almost impenetrable 
mass of herbage. 

This system appears to have secondary merit, and will 
always remain local in application. It possesses the advantage 
of economy in construction of the trelhs, for very slender posts 
are used, even at the ends of the rows. The end posts are either 
braced by a pole, or anchored by a wire taken from the top 
and secured to a stake or stone 8 to 10 feet beyond, outside the 
vineyard. 



334 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



Renewal Kniffin. 

It is easy to adapt the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots 
to a true renewal method of pruning. There are a few modi- 
fications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near 
the ground. The trellises comprise either two or three wires, 




348. Cross-Wire training. 

and are made in the same way as for the upright systems, 
as in the High Renewal. At the annual pruning only one cane 
is left. This comprises twelve or fifteen buds, and is tied up 
diagonally across the trellis, the point or end of the cane 
usually being bent downward somewhat, to check the strong 
growth from the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this 
cane, and they may be pinched back when they reach the 
ground. In the meantime, a strong shoot is taken out from 
the opposite side of the head — which usually stands a foot or 
less from the ground — to make the bearing wood of the next 
year; and this new cane will be tied in an opposite direction 
on the trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next 
renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head, 
or the side from which the present bearing wood arose, so that 
the bearing top of the vine is alternated in either direction 
on the trellis. 



OTHER DROOPING STYLES 



335 



This system, and similar ones, allows of laying down the 
vines easily in winter, and insures excellent fruit because the 
extent of bearing wood is small; but the crop is not large enough 
to satisfy the demands of most grape-growers. 

The Munson system; Wakeman. 

Another system of training, upon the Kniffin principle, has 
been perfected by the late T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, 
who made conscientious and able studies of the American 
, ^ grape problem. At first, two 

posts were set in the same hole, 
their tops diverging. A wire was 
stretched along the top of these 
posts, and a thii'd one hung be- 
tween them on cross-wires. The 




1^1 

349. Two-Post Munson train- 
ing. End view. 




350. Two-Post Munson 
training. Side view. 



trunk of the vine, or its head, was secured to this middle lower 
wire and the shoots lop over the side wires (Figs. 349, 350). The 
growth, therefore, makes a V-shaped or trough-like mass of 
herbage. 

At present, single posts with cross-bars are used, as in Fig. 



336 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 




351. The lowest wire (bottom of the trough) is at 1, running 
through the posts; the side or marginal wires, above it, are 
shown at 2 and 3. The bearing canes, two or four in number, 
which are left after the annual pruning, are tied along the 
middle wire. The main trunk forks just under the middle wire, 

as seen at the left in 
Fig. 352. A head is 
formed at this place not 
unlike that of the High 
Renewal, for this sys- 
tem also employs re- 
newal pruning. The 
trellis stands 6 feet high. 
The shoots stand up- 
right at first, but soon 
fall down and are sup- 
ported by the side wires. 
Fig. 352 presents a side 
view, when only two canes have been developed, and also when 
the full four canes are tied to the bottom middle wire. These 
pictures represent the vine after the pruning. 

"A similar method of training, but more suitable to the 
wind-beaten shores of Long Island, has been introduced and 
successfully tried for several years by Mr. Elbert Wakeman, a 
distinguished amateur grape-grower of Oyster Bay, Long 
Island. The trellis is 33^ to 4 feet high only; the bearing canes 
are fastened to the two side wires when long enough, making a 
V-shaped trough of branches and foliage, like the former 
[Munson]; there is space enough between the wires for the 
bunches to hang down, free from any interference and just the 
proper height to be easily bagged and sprayed. It is strong, 
not very expensive, and will pay for the little extra care." — 
Bushberg Catalogue, fourth edition, 1895, where the method 
is illustrated. 



351. 



Perfected Munson training. The lowest 
wire is four feet above the ground. 



MODIFIED KNIFFIN STYLES 



337 



Modified Munson. 

In the South, a Modified Munson has been introduced, and 
is described as follows by Starnes (Bulletin No. 28, Georgia 
Experiment Station): 'This system, which might better be 
termed the 'Alternate-Renewal' Munson, presents two advan- 
tages which the True Munson does not possess, and to my mind 
is preferable. It permits the bearing wood to be alternated 
from one side of the vine to the other, and is cheaper by one 
wire. 

"No middle wire is used, and a slat is tacked across the V in 
place of the slack wire. A fork is formed below the wire in Y- 
shape. From this fork a cane is trained to the right on one 
wire, and to the left on the other wire. A shoot on each cane, 
taken from a point near the wire, is trained in the opposite 
direction from, but on the same wire with, the cane, with which 
to renew the next season, when the bearing wood will be pruned 
to a spur, which in its turn will form a renewal shoot, and so on, 
alternately, the bearing canes extending always in opposite 




352. Perfected Munson training. At the left, a vine after second season'i 
growth, pruned and tied; at the right, a bearing vine in the third season'i 
growth, with the four canes pruned and tied. 



338 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

directions and on different wires, and alternating each year. 
The position of the vine the next season will simply be shifted 
or reversed. 

''Sometimes, instead of 6 feet, the trellis is made only 4 feet 
high. This height appears to have done just as well as the 
other at the Georgia Station. Here, the V supports have been 
made of 1. by 3 slats. When the sharpened ends are dipped in 
coal-tar, or even white lead, driven in the ground so that they 
will cross each other just above the surface and tacked with 
two tenpenny nails, a firm, durable and sightly support is the 
result." 

This Modified Munson system appears never to have been 
used extensively. Sometimes it is further modified by allowing 
all four canes to bear, renewing each year from the best shoots 
or canes nearest the second fork in the vine, 

MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS 

Having now described the upright and the drooping methods 
of grape-training, we may consider some of the outlying or 
unclassified forms. They are little employed in commercial 
practice. 

Horizontal training. 

There are very few types of horizontal-shoot training 
now in use. One of the best may be described. Two wires are 
run from post to post, as in the ordinary trellis, one about 23^ 
feet above the ground and the other 53^^ feet high. The posts are 
set at the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The vines 
are 6 or 8 feet apart, if Delawares or other weak growers. A 
strong stake is driven just behind each vine, standing as high 
as the top of the trellis. The permanent trunk or head of the 
vine stands about a foot high. The vine is renewed back to the 
top of this trunk every year. One cane is left at each pruning. 



HORIZONTAL TRAINING 339 

which, when tied to the stake, is as high as the trelHs. From 
this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are carried out 
horizontally. About six of these shoots are allowed to grow on 
either side of the cane. As the shoots grow, they are tied to 
perpendicular slats fastened on the wires. These slats do not 
touch the ground. Two slats are provided on either side, making 
four to a vine. They stand a foot or 15 inches apart. The 
clusters hang free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots 
grow too long, they are pinched when they have passed the sec- 
ond slat. While these shoots are covering the trellis, another 
shoot is taken out from the head or trunk of the vine, and, 
without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central 
stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, for all the 
present vine is to be cut away entirely at the winter's pruning. 
So the vine starts every spring with but a single cane. 

Excellent results are secured from the slender-growing va- 
rieties by this method of training, but it is too expensive in 
trellis and in the labor of tying to make it generally practicable. 
Delaware, however, thrives remarkably well when trained 
in this fashion. 

Post-training. 

There are various methods of training to posts, all of which 
possess two advantages — the saving of the expense of trellis 
and allowing of tillage both ways. But they also have grave 
disadvantages, especially in the thickness of the head of foliage, 
which harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying, 
and hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening. These faults 
are so serious that post-training is now little used for the 
American grapes. The saving in cost of trellis is not great, for 
more posts are required to the acre than in the trellis systems, 
and they do not endure long when standing alone with the whole 
weight of the vines thrown upon them. 

The methods of pruning for the stakcrtraining are of several 



340 METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 

kinds, but nearly all of them agree in pruning to side spurs on 
a permanent upright arm. There may be one or two sets of 
these spurs. 

We might suppose the Kniffin vine shown in Fig. 330 to be 
tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis; in that event, the 
four canes would hang at will, or they might be wrapped about 
the post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. 
The post systems are essentially Kniffin in principle, for the 
shoots hang free. In low styles of post-training, the permanent 
head of the vine may be only 3 or 5 feet high. This head will 
have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual pruning three to 
five canes are left with six to ten buds each. 

The main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post. 
The canes left after pruning are variously disposed. Sometimes 
they are bent upwards and tied to the post above the head of 
the vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely about the 
post or allowed to hang loose. Two trunks are frequently used 
to each post, both coming from the ground from a common 
root. These are woimd about the post in opposite directions, 
one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured at the 
top by a small nail driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying 
will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts are set at dis- 
tances of 1 foot or more apart, and the vines are wrapped 
about them, but this only augments the size and depth of the 
mass of foliage. 

Now and then one sees a careful post-training, in which but 
little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of shoots practised, 
which gives excellent results; but on the whole, post-training 
cannot be recommended. The European post and stake systems, 
or modifications of them, are yet occasionally recommended 
for American vines; but under general conditions, especially in 
commercial grape-growing, they rarely succeed for any length of 
time. In California, with the European vine, post- training is 
successfully employed, as described in Chapter X. 



GRAPE-VINE BOWERS 341 

Arbors. 

Arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference 
to pruning and training. The first object is to secure shade and 
seclusion, and these are conditions that may seriously interfere 
with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too much wood 
must be allowed to grow, and the soil about arbors is rarely 
tilled. Still, fair results in fruit can be secured if the operator 
makes a diligent use of the pruning-shears. 

It is usually best to carry one main or permanent trunk up 
to the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at intervals 
of 2 feet or less, spurs may be left to which the wood is renewed 
each year. If the vines stand 6 feet apart about the arbor — 
which is a satisfactory distance — one cane 3 feet long may be 
left on each spur when the pruning is performed. The shoots 
springing from these canes will soon cover the intermediate 
spaces. At the close of the season, this entire cane, with its 
laterals, is cut away at the spur, and another 3-foot cane — 
which grew during the season — is left in its place. 

This pruning is essentially that of the Kniffin vine in Fig. 
330. Imagine this vine, with as many joints or tiers as neces- 
sary, laid upon the arbor. The canes are tied out lengthwise 
to the slats instead of being tied on wires. 

This same system — running up a long trunk and cutting in 
to side spurs — ^will apply equally well to tall walls and fences 
which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so far 
as yield and quahty of fruit is concerned, is to renew back nearly 
to the root, bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or 
three every year, and cutting the old ones off; but as the vines 
are desired for shade, one does not care to wait until midsummer 
for the vines to reach and cover the top of the arbor. 

The Canopy trellis. 

"A single line of posts is set as for an ordinary trellis. 
Pieces of scantling about 23^ feet in length are spiked horizon- 



342 



■METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 




353. A canopy trellis. 



tally across the top at right angles to the line of the trellis. On 
the upper side of these cross or horizontal pieces three wires 
are strung, one at each end and the third in the middle. The 

illustration (Fig. 353) 
will make this clear. The 
vine is trained to the 
center wire in a single 
stem' at which level its 
top or arms are formed. 
The shoots or bearing 
wood of the vine droop 
or hang over the other 
wires. In some parts of 
the country, especially in large portions of the South, this form 
of trellis is very popular with vineyardists. They claim it 
protects and shades the fruit from the injurious effects of the 
hot sun." — W. H. Ragan, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 156. 

In the Farmers' Bulletin just quoted, Ragan writes as 
follows on the training of vines to buildings: "Many farm build- 
ings, and even the dwelling itself in some instances, may be 
utilized in supporting a vine or vines, and, in not a few cases, 
would be made more beautiful thereby (Fig. 354). If the vines 
are to be trained on the 
walls of buildings, they 
should be planted in a 
well-prepared border or 
bed, a few inches from 
the foundation, and the 
eaves should have gut- 
ters to carry the excess 
of water away from their 
roots. The vines should 
be securely attached to 

the wall to prevent them 354. Vines about a building. 







NEGLECTED VINES 343 

from giving way under the weight of fruit. A strip of woven 
wire may be attached to the wall and the vines tied or fastened 
to it. In this way the building will not be damaged by fasten- 
ing the vines directly to the wall. With buildings of httle value, 
the vines may be made fast by tacking strips of old leather or 
even cloth over the branches and against the walls at convenient 
distances apart. A wall, because of its warmth and dryness, is 
an excellent place to grow fine grapes, and if the vine so planted 
is properly trained and cared for it will become an object of 
beauty and a joy to the fanner's household." (See also Fig. 250.) 

Remodeling old vines. 

Old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled to advan- 
tage. If the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow 
an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. If the 
old top is cut back severely for a year or two, this new cane will 
make a vigorous growth, and it can be treated essentially like 
a new or young vine. If it is very strong and ripens up well, it 
may be left long enough the first autumn to make the permanent 
trunk ; but if it is rather weak and soft, it should be cut back in 
autumn or winter to two or three buds, from one of which the 
permanent trunk is to be grown the second season. Thereafter, 
the instructions given in the preceding pages for the various 
systems will apply to the new vine. The old trunk should be 
cut away as soon as the new one is permanently tied to the wires 
— that is, at the close of either the first or second season of the 
new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts from 
the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut back into the 
ground and covered with earth, better results may be expected. 
Old vines treated in this way often make good plants, but if the 
vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble will scarcely pay. 

Old vines can be remodeled or renewed easily by means of 
grafting. Cut off the trunk 5 or 6 inches below the surface of 
the ground, leaving an inch or 2 of straight wood above the roots. 



344 



METHODS OF GRAPE-TRAINING 



Into this stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting the 
apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm wood the size of a 
lead-pencil, should be inserted. The top bud should stand above 
the ground. It is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or other 
material over the wound. Fill the earth tightly about it. Great 
care must be taken in any pruning the first year, or the cions 
may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to a stake there 
will be less danger from wind and careless workmen. In the 
vine shown in Fig. 355, no pruning or rubbing out was employed, 
but the vine would have been in better shape for training if 
only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. 

If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will be best 
to cut back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning. 
The extent of wood which shall be left must be determined by 
the vigor of the plant and the variety, but three or four canes 
of six to ten buds each may be left at suitable places. The 
next season a strong shoot from the base of each cane may be 
allowed to grow, which will form the wood of the following 
season, while all the present cane is cut away at the end of the 
year, so that the bearing-wood is renewed each year, as in the 
regular systems of training. Much skill and experience are often 
required properly to rejuvenate an old vine. 




355. A good yearling graft 



CHAPTER X 

THE PRUNING OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE 

The grapes that we have considered in the two preceding 
chapters are derived from the American native species, largely 
indirectly from Vitis Labrusca. The grapes of glasshouses and 
also those grown extensively in California for raisins, wine, and 
table use are the Old-World wine-grape, Vitis vinifera. The 
training of the vinifera grape differs much from that of the Ameri- 
can kinds, because it forms a more self-supporting trunk and does 
not run so extensively to wood that requires a trellis support. 

GLASSHOUSE PRACTICE 

There are many systems of training vines in graperies. In 
fact, nearly every gardener has a mode or a method of his own, 
which he insists is better than all others; and this is proof that 
several systems are good. In general, the vine is trained 
to one trunk, which extends from the ground to the top of the 
house. From the sides of this trunk, spurs are taken out; and 
these spurs are cut back each year to one or two buds. Fig. 356 
shows a part of a trunk after pruning, with the very short spurs. 
Some growers prefer to have longer spurs, as in Fig. 357. It 
is generally desired to have an alternation of fruit-bearing on 
these spurs. This is accomplished by pinching the flower clusters 
from some of the shoots, or by cutting to a strong or fruit-bear- 
ing bud on one spur and to a weak or barren bud at the very 
base of the other. The weak bud gives only a shoot; but the 
next year it is cut to a strong bud and the neighboring spur is 
cut to a weak one. 

(345) 



346 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



The vine in Fig. 357 has spurs in pairs. The one on the left 
has already been cut six times. The pruning of this vine is 
explained in Fig. 358. The former prunings are marked by 
the letters. A more detailed view of an old 
spur is given in Fig. 359. 

It is usually best to prune the vines as soon 
as the fruit is off, thereby allowing the plants 
to be protected in winter, and destroying the 
lodging places of insects and fungi. 



V 



1^^ V 



356 Old irm with 
short spurs. 



VINE-PRUNING IN CALIFORNIA 

By Fbedehic T. Bioletti 
(Pages 346-400) 

The systems of vine-pruning practised in 
California differ in many respects from those 
suitable in the states east of the Rockies. 
The differences depend principally on climatic 
causes, but partly on the nature of the varie- 
ties themselves. 

The eastern grapes are developments from 
the native species of the country, whereas, with 
a few imimportant exceptions, all the vines 
cultivated in California are varieties of the 
European or wine-grape, Vitis vinifera. This 
species wUl tolerate more radical interference 
with the natural form of the plant than any 
other. Most species must be allowed to develop 
more or less as wide-spreading sarmentose 
climbers clinging to supports as in nature, or 
the bearing will be unsatisfactory. The vinif- 
eras, on the contrary, may be reduced to the 
form of a low rigid self-supporting shrub and 
still often yield maximum crops. This makes it 



CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS 



347 



possible to adopt much simpler and more economical methods 
of pruning. 

The long warm excessively dry summer of California pro- 
motes fruitfulness, so that the long fruit-canes used in the 
East are usually unnecessary. This same climatic pecuharity 




357. Long-spiir pruning under glasa. 



probably also prevents the occurrence of downy mildew, black- 
rot, and similar serious fungous diseases which could hardly be 
controlled on vines with the dense mass of foliage close to the 
ground which results from the normal styles of pruning. 

The simpUcity of pruning, however, and the fact that most 
vines bear fairly well with almost any kind of pruning, have 
led to a carelessness which often seriously diminishes both the 



348 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



quantity and quality of the crop. Some of the best varieties 
require ahnost or quite as much care as eastern varieties, and 
there is no variety that will not give profitable returns for intel- 
ligent and careful pruning. 

No account, however detailed, of any system can replace 
the intelligence of the cultivator. For this reason the general 
principles of plant physiology which underlie all proper pruning 
and training are discussed in connec- 
tion with the several systems. This 
should aid the grower in choosing that 
system most suited to the conditions 
of his vineyard, and in modifying it to 
suit special conditions and seasons. 
All the operations of pruning, tying, 
staking,, and others, to which a culti- 
vated vine owes its form, are conven- 
iently considered together. 

The main objects of pruning, in the 
wider sense, are (1) to give the vine a 
suitable form and to conserve this 
form; and (2) so to regulate the bear- 
ing that the maximum quality and 
quantity of crop may be secured for a 
long series of years at the minimum 
expense. 

The crop possibilities of a vineyard, 
both as regards quantity and quality, 
depend on many factors, of which the chief are the character 
of soil and climate, the amount of available water, and the 
nature of the variety. What part of these possibilities is 
realized depends on the operations of the vineyardist, on how 
he handles the soil and the vine. One of the most important 
of these operations is pruning. By improper pruning one may 
neutralize the most favorable conditions, and destroy the effect 




358. The spurs pruned. 



THE VINIFERA PLANT 



349 



of the most careful cultivation. The skilful pruner, on the 
other hand, gives his vines the opportunity to utilize to the full 
all the natural and cultural advantages. 

A young vine under average conditions in California should 
bear a paying crop at three years; that is, in the autumn of the 
third leaf or third summer in the field. At four years, it should 
be practically in full bearing. Under exceptionally favorable 
conditions, bearing may be nearly a year earlier than this. In 




359. An old spur in glass-house treatment. 



the cooler regions and with certain varieties, a year longer may 
be necessary. These results can be secured only when the 
pruning in the first years is properly performed. 

PARTS OF A VINIFERA VINE 



The cultivated vine has a permanent framework, consisting 
of root, trunk, and arms, producing an annual growth of shoots, 
leaves, and fruit above ground and of rootlets below. As in the 
native American species, the fruit is borne on shoots of the 
season that spring from wood of the preceding season, as shown 
in Fig. 360. 

The trunk is usually vertical, but may be in part horizontal. 
It varies in length from 1 to 2 feet in low vines and from 3 to 
6 feet in high vines. Its functions are the conducting and stor- 
age of food materials and the support of leaves and fruit. 

The arms are the smaller divisions of the framework attached 
to the trunk. They vary in length from a few inches to a 
maximum of about 18 inches. They may rise radially from the 
top of the trunk {vase-form) or along its whole length {vertical 



350 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



j^/^ 



cordon). Their functions are the production of young wood and 
the proper distribution of leaves and fruit. 

The young wood produced each year by the arms is utilized 
to form the spurs and canes that bear the leaves and fruit. Its 
total length varies from a few dozen feet to several hundred. 
In all cases, from 90 to 98 per cent of all the growth is removed 
at each pruning. 

To discuss pruning intelligently, it is necessary to agree on 
the definition of the technical terms. The definitions and terms 
employed here are in nearly all cases those of the major part of 
Californian grape-growers. An attempt has been made to have 
them correspond as nearly as possible to the terms used in other 
countries and in. the pruning of other 
plants. The main difficulty in this respect 
has been with the terms spur, sucker, 
watersprout, and lateral. In these cases 
the usage of Californian grape-growers 
has been followed. 

TEEMS REFERRING TO THE FORM AND 

STRUCTURE OF A CULTIVATED VINE 

IN CALIFORNIA 



I. Subterranean Parts 

Root-tips. — The extreme ends of the rootlets. 

Rootlets. — The finest roots, the growth of one 
season. 

Root-branches. — All the divisions and sub- 
divisions of the main roots older than one season. 

Main roots. — The leading root branches aris- 
ing from the underground stem or tap-root. 

Tap-root. — A single plunging main root or 
prolongation of the imderground stem. 

Root-crown. — The base of the underground 
stem or region from which originate the main 
roots. 




360. The bearing shoot 
of a vinifera vine. — Stage 
of growth of shoot for 
first pinching. 



THE PARTS OF A VINE 351 

Underground stem. — The part of the trunk below ground from the bot- 
tom of which start the main roots or tap-root. 

II. Aerial Parts 
A. Skeleton or framework after pruning 

Trunk or stem. — The unbranched body of the vine. 

Head or crown. — The top of the trunk, or region from which arise the 
arms or branohes. 

Branches. — The mam divisions (when long) of the trunk. 

Arms. — The main divisions (when short) of the trunk or branches; 
more than one season old. 

Spurs. — Short pieces of the bases of canes; one to four internodes with 
their eyes. (One-year-old wood only. If left the following year, they become 
arms.) 

Fruit-spurs. — Spurs left for the production of fruit; one to four inter- 
nodes. 

Wood-spurs, (a) Renewal spurs. — Spurs left to supply fruit-spurs, or 
fruit-canes for the following year; one to two internodes. 

Wood-spurs, (b) Replacing spurs. — Spurs left to supply growth for the 
replacing of defective arms; one intemode. 

Fruit-canes. — Canes from two-year-old wood left for fruit, 1^ to 6 feet 
long. 

B. Annual growth 

1. Before the formation of leaves. 

Eyes. — The compound buds on the canes. 

Fruit-buds. — Buds from which a shoot, bearing flowers, will be pro- 
duced. 

Wood-buds. — Buds from which sterile shoots will be produced. 

Base bud. — The lowest well-formed eye at the base of a cane or spur. 

Latent buds. — Buds which have remained dormant for one growing 
season or more; dormant buds. 

Adventitious buds. — Buds arising from leafless parts of the wood. 

Main buds. — The large central buds of the eyes. 

Secondary buds. — The small lateral buds of the eyes. 

2. During the formation of leaves. 

Shoots. — The succulent growth arising from a bud. 

Fruit-shoots. — Shoots bearing flowers. 

Wood-shoots. — Sterile shoots; shoots not bearing flowers. 



352 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



Watersprouts. — Shoots arising from the dormant or adventitious buds. 

Stickers. — Shoots originating below the surface of the ground. (Water- 
sprouts are called suckers by some — a practice that is confusing.) 

Laterals. — Secondary shoots arising from buds in the axils of the leaves 
of the main shoots. 

3. After the fall of the leaves, before pruning. 

Old wood. — Parts of the vine older than one year. 

Canes. — Young wood or growth of the current season, consisting of a 
series of nodes, each furnished with an eye and separated by the smooth 
portions called intsrnodes. 

Fruit-wood. — Canes having fruit-buds — usually growing out of two- 
year-old wood. 

Sterile wood. — Canes growing out of wood older than two years — 
usually having no fruit-buds. 

The illustrations will explain these terms. Fig. 361 represents a vine 
of no particular order of pruning, showing the principal aerial parts of an 
unpruned vine after the fall of the leaves. The trunk or stem, t, is the 
vertical, unbranched portion at the top of which, from the crown or head, 
arise the short arms, a, a, or branches, b. From the arms, arises the fruit- 




361. Diagram to illustrate terminology. 

wood, /, which is utilized to form the fruit-canes, and the sterile wood or 
water-sprouts, ws. All this wood is the result of the season's growth, and 
consists of canes, c. Any cane originating below the ground is called a 
sucker, s. The canes may produce side shoots called laterals, I, which in 
turn may produce shoots called secondary laterals, si. 

An arm of a vine as it appears in winter after the leaves have fallen is 
shown in Fig. 362. The canes (W^) are the matured shoots of the previous 
spring. W^, W^, W* represent two-, three- and four-year-old wood respect- 



THE PARTS OF A VINE 



353 



ively . Near the base of each cane is a basal bud or eye (B°) . In countinj; the 
number of eyes on a spur, the basal eye is not included. A cane cut at K^, 
for instance, leaves a spur of one eye, at K^ a spur of two eyes, and so on. 
When more than four eyes are left, the piece is generally called a fruiting 
cane (Fig. 361,/). The canes 
(C, C^) coming from two- C 

year-old wood (W^) possess 
fruit-buds; that is, they are 
capable of producing fruit- 
bearing shoots. Water- 
sprouts (WS) and suckers (S) 
do not ordinarily produce 
fruit-bearing shoots. Below 
the basal bud, each cane has 
one or more dormant buds, 
which do not grow unless the 
number of eyes left by prun- 
ing or frost is insufficient to 
reUeve the excess of sap-pres- 
sure. These buds produce sterile shoots. Each eye on a cane has at its 
base two dormant buds. One of these sometimes grows out the year it is 
formed, making a lateral (/, Figs. 361, 362). These laterals may send out 
secondary laterals {si, Fig. 361). It is on the laterals and secondary 
laterals that the so-called second and third crops are borne. 




The parts of the vinifera vine. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 



The correct pruning of the vine is based on certain facts 
regarding plant-growth and nutrition, which the pruner should 
understand. Some of these facts apply to all plants; others are 
peculiar to the vine. They afford good guides to practice in the 
training of the grape. 

1. The vine prepares its food by means of the green coloring 
matter (chlorophyl) of its leaves. All the sugar, starch, and 
other substances which make up the body of the vine and of 
its crop are elaborated in the leaves by means of the chlorophyl 
under the influence of sunlight. The carbonic acid of the air 
and the water from the soil furnish the main bulk, while the 
w 



354 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

mineral salts from the soil furnish a smaller but equally neces- 
sary part. A certain area of green leaf-surface functioning for a 
certain time is necessary to produce sufficient nourishment for 
the vital needs of the vine and for the production of the crop. 
Those leaves most exposed to the direct rays of the sun are 
most active in absorbing and producing food. The youngest 
leaves take nourishment from the older parts of the plant; 
somewhat older leaves use up more nutrient material than they 
absorb from the air. A young shoot may thus be looked on, in 
a sense, as parasitic on the remainder of the vine. After a cer- 
tain stage, the leaves produce more food material than they 
utilize, and the excess goes to support other parts. The true 
feeders of the vine and of its crop, therefore, are the mature 
dark green leaves. 

This principle shows that any method which forces an un- 
necessary growth of young shoots or removes mature leaves, 
while still active, Hmits the possibilities of production and, if 
carried too far, may result in starvation of the vine. 

2. Within certain limits, the tendency to fruitfulness of a 
vine or a part of a vine is inversely proportionate to its vegeta- 
tive vigor. Withm these limits, methods that increase the vege- 
tative vigor diminish bearing, and, vice versa, methods that 
diminish vigor, increase bearing. Failure to reckon with this 
fact and to maintain a proper mean between the two extremes 
lead, on the one hand, to comparative sterility and, on the 
other, to over-bearing and premature exhaustion of the vine. 

The correct treatment of a vine is that which uivigorates it 
as much as is possible without diminishing the crop. 

3. Other conditions being equal, an excess of foliage is ac- 
companied by a small amount of fruit; an excess of fruit by 
diminished foliage. This and No. 4 are corollaries of Principle 
No. 2. 

4. Bending, twisting, or otherwise injuring the tissues of the 
vine or of its parts tend to diminish its vegetative vigor and, 



THE PRINCIPLES 355 

therefore, unless excessive, to increase its fruitfulness. This 
principle is utilized in ringing and root-pruning. 

5. The vine tends to force out terminal buds and to expend 
most of its energy on the shoots farthest from the trunk. To 
keep the vine within practicable limits, this tendency must be 
controlled by the removal of terminal buds or by measures that 
check the flow of sap and force the growth of buds nearer the 
stock. 

Certain defective styles of pruning fail to recognize this ten- 
dency and are, therefore, impracticable and cannot be con- 
tinued indefinitely. One of the commonest of these is the tying 
of fruit-canes vertically to a stake. 

6. The nearer a shoot or cane approaches the vertical, the 
more vigorous it will be. 

This principle is applied in the Guyot and similar systems 
of pruning. The shoots from renewal spurs are tied up verti- 
cally to a stake and are thus made vigorous. On the other 
hand, the fruit-canes are tied horizontally to wires, thus mod- 
erating the vigor and increasing fruitfulness. 

7. The size of vines or of parts of vines is inversely as their 
number, if other conditions remain the same. 

Thus, for example, the fewer vines to the acre, the larger 
each will grow; the fewer shoots allowed to grow on a vine or 
the arm of a vine, the larger each individual shoot. This prin- 
ciple extends to the fruit. If we want large bunches, we must 
limit their number; if we want large berries, there must not be 
too many on a bunch. 

The skilful pruner directs as much as possible of the energy 
and growth of the plant into the permanent framework of the 
vine and into its fruit. The unskilful pruner allows the vine to 
grow canes, arms, or branches where they are not wanted and 
which must be cut off later. This is not only a loss to the 
vine, which is deprived of all the removed material which ought 
to have gone into its permanent framework, but the large wounds 



356 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

are a source of weakness and shorten the hfe of the vme. The 
skilful pruner makes use of the vigor of the vine by making it 
bear all the fruit it is capable of bringing to perfection. He 
properly distributes the fruit-buds, leaving on each cane, arai, 
or vine just the number needed, without running the risk on the 
one hand of weakening the vine with an over-supply of poor 
fruit, or, on the other hand, of forcing it to excessive vigor and 
steriUty. 

To avoid waste in the development of a young vine, the 
pruner must have a clear idea of the form he wishes to give it. 
He must then, by appropriate and timely removal of buds and 
shoots, force the growth into those parts that are to form the 
permanent framework of his ideal vine. No cane, arm, or divi- 
sion should be allowed to grow more than one season which is 
not destined to be part of the final skeleton of the mature plant. 
In this way the vine will not only attain the desired form but 
will quickly reach bearing stature and be free from the large 
wounds which are one of the main causes of premature aging. 

THE APPLICATIONS 

The principal pruning of the vine is performed while the 
plant is dormant, between the fall of the leaves at the beginning 
of winter and the starting of the buds at the begimiing of spring. 
In large vineyards, the pruning may have to be spread over 
most of this period; in smaller vineyards it is usually possible 
to prune in the month judged to be most favorable. 

Season of pruning in California. 

In deciding on the best time for pruning, one must con- 
sider the convenience of other cultural operations, and the 
effect of the period on the health and bearing of the vine. 

For convenience, the earlier the pruning is performed the 
better. Pruning in November and December gives abundant 



WHEN TO PRUNE 357 

time to gather and to remove the prunings, to apply fertihzers, 
to plow, urigate, and sucker, and to tie up the fruit-canes before 
the starting of the buds. 

The effects of the time of pruning on the vigor and fruitful- 
ness of the vine bear a close relation to the location and amount 
of reserve food material in the various parts of the plant. Just 
before the natural fall of the leaves the canes contain the 
maximum amount of food material, such as starch, sugar, 
cellulose, and other carbohydrates. For two or three weeks 
immediately following the fall of the leaves, much of these sub- 
stances passes rapidly downward to accumulate as reserves in 
the roots. Later these reserves ascend again slowly, to supply 
the above-ground parts of the vine, which, though dormant, 
still require nutrition. In spring, in the period just before and 
just after the starting of the buds, this upward migration of 
reserves is more rapid, and continues until the young leaves are 
sufficiently developed to supply the vine with its carbohydrate 
supphes. 

If we prune a vine, therefore, immediately after the fall of 
the leaves, the cuttings contain the largest amount of reserves 
and are in the best condition for grafting or planting. Three or 
four weeks later, the roots contain the largest amount of re- 
serves, and if the pruning is performed then they will be in the 
best condition to promote a vigorous growth in the spring. 
When the buds start in the spring, the root has lost some of its 
reserves, used up by the canes during the winter. Pruning at 
this time, therefore, results in a less vigorous growth of shoots, 
but also, usually, in a better "setting" of the crop. 

The time of pruning, therefore, influences the vigor and fruit- 
fulness of the vine. When vigor is the main desideratum, as 
with young vines before bearing, or with old vines weakened by 
disease or over-bearing, early pruning (December) is advisable. 
When the vines lack in fruitfulness, owing to excessive vigor, 
late pruning (March or April) is preferable. Vines that are 



358 V IN IF ERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

neither excessively vigorous nor weak may be pruned at any 
convenient time between the fall of the leaves in autumn and 
the swelling of the buds in spring. 

In localities much subject to killing spring frosts, another 
consideration takes precedence of all others. The later the prun- 
ing, the later the starting of the buds and the better chance 
have the shoots of escaping injury. By delaying the pruning 
until the terminal buds of the canes have begun to grow, the 
starting of the spur and fruit-cane buds can be delayed nearly 
two weeks. With certain varieties, which, like the Muscat, 
require more than ordinarily warm dry weather for proper polli- 
nation and setting of the fruit, late pruning is advisable in most 
localities. Late pruning delays the period of blossoming, al- 
though somewhat less than the starting of the buds. This delay 
increases the probability of securing warm dry weather for 
blossoming. 

Amount of pruning. 

An average vine before pruning may have 25 canes with an 
average of 15 buds on each, or 375 buds in all. If the vine is 
not pruned, not all these buds will start or produce shoots. 
Probably not more than 50 to 100 will do so. If we prune the 
canes back so that we leave only 50 to 100 buds, the same num- 
ber of shoots will be produced. The only effect will be that 
buds nearer the bases of the canes will start instead of buds 
near the ends. (See Principle No. 5, page 355.) The quality 
and quantity of the crop and the vigor of the vine and its shoots 
will be influenced Uttle, if at all. 

If we prune the vine more severely and leave only haK this 
number of buds, a smaller number of shoots will be produced. 
As this smaller number has the same store of reserve material 
in trunk and root to draw on and the same root-system to supply 
water and soil nutrients, each shoot will grow larger and more 
vigorously. (See Principle No. 7, page 355.) This smaller 



HOW MUCH TO PRUNE 359 

number of large shoots will produce as much foliage as the larger 
number of small shoots on the unpruned vine and the vigor of 
the vine is therefore not diminished. There will also be a smaller 
number of bunches, but each of these will be larger and have 
larger berries so that the total weight of crop will be as large as 
on an unpruned vine. In fact, the weight of crop will probably 
be larger, as it is easier for the vine to supply the water and 
sugar that constitute the main bulk of large berries than the 
stems, seeds, and skin which form a larger part of small berries. 

Wm may increase the severity of the pruning, that is, diminish 
the number of buds left, still further without materially influ- 
encing either the vigor of the vine, the amount of foliage, or the 
weight of crop. Beyond a certain point, however, the crop is 
diminished. There are two causes for this. One is that there 
is a certain maximum size for the bunches and berries of any 
imrticular vine. When we have reached this maximum, any 
further decrease of fruit-bunches results in a diminished crop. 
The other is that the excessive vigor given the shoots is un- 
favorable to fruiting (see Principle No. 2, page 354), often 
causing coulure or dropping of the blossoms without "setting." 
The pruner should endeavor, therefore, to leave just enough 
fi-uit-buds to furnish the number of bunches that the vine can 
carry to perfection. 

Beyond this point the crop is diminished and the vigor of 
the new growth correspondingly increased. If we prune the 
vine so severely that no crop is produced, the vigor of the vine 
attains its maximum. Even though we prune off all the growth 
of the season, the vine may not be weakened, as it produces 
shoots from dormant and adventitious buds with so much facil- 
ity that the foliage produced is as great as when we leave spurs 
with well-formed buds. 

Heavy winter pruning, therefore, invigorates the vine by 
diminishing the crop. Light winter pruning increases the crop. 
If this increase is represented by a larger number of bunches 



360 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

than the vine can properly nourish, the crop will be inferior in 
quality and the vine weakened by over-bearing. On a mature 
vine of normal vigor, the pruner should leave the same number 
of spurs and fruit-buds as was left the year before. If the vine 
appears to be abnormally vigorous, more fruit-buds should be 
left in order to utilize this vigor in the production of crop. On 
the other hand, if the vine appears weak, it should be pruned 
more severely than the previous year, that is, fewer fruit- 
buds should be left. Any attempt to make a weak vine bear a 
normal crop can result only in further weakening of the vine 
and in the production of inferior grapes. By pruning such a 
vine for a small crop, the grapes will be of good quality and the 
vine invigorated so that it can produce normal crops in subse- 
quent years. These statements apply not only to individual 
vines, but to individual arms or canes of a vine. The number of 
fruit-canes, -spurs or -buds should be in proportion to the 
strength of the arm. A fruit-cane or fruit-spur should be the 
longer the more vigorous it is. 

The vigor of a vine is determined not only by the growth it 
has made, but by the reserves contained in its canes and body. 
Its condition in this respect can be determined by an inspection 
of the canes. These should be firm and heavy. Soft pithy 
canes indicate weakness and should never be left for fruit- 
bearing. If all or most of the canes on a vine are of this char- 
acter, the vine should be pruned very short, in extreme cases 
sufficiently short to prevent any attempt to bear. On the other 
hand, long, firm canes should be made to produce fruit by being 
left longer whether as fruit-spurs or fruit-canes. 

The iodine test is useful in determining the condition of 
the canes or vines in respect to reserves of starch. For this 
test, a solution of iodine in 75 per cent alcohol is used — 100 parts 
by weight of alcohol to one part by weight of iodine. A clean 
slanting cut is made through the cane and a few drops of the 
solution placed on the cut. In three to five minutes a well- 



HOW MUCH TO PRUNE 361 

nourished cane, containing abundance of starch, turns black 
all over the cut. An imperfectly nourished cane will turn black' 
only on the medullary rays, which will show like the spokes of 
a wheel. If only a few black specks are produced by the iodine, 
reserves are lacking. In the first case, the canes are good for 
use as cuttings or grafts and indicate that the vine is capable of 
producing a good crop. The pruning should be correspondingly 
generous. In the last case, the cuttings are useless and the vine 
should be pruned very short. A few tests of this kind in a vine- 
yard ^will give a very fair idea of the amount of reserves in the 
vines and be a valuable aid in determining the amount of 
pruning. 

Young and old vines. 

During the first part of the life of the vine, the main, if not 
the only, object of the pruner is to develop a framework of 
proper form. The methods of doing this and the time required 
will depend on the form aimed at, and on the more or less 
favorable conditions for rapid growth. The crop in this forma- 
tive period should be a secondary object. In fact, nothing is 
lost if it is left out of consideration altogether, except in so far 
as it affects the attainment of the desired form. Vines so pruned 
as to reach most rapidly and perfectly a desirable shape will 
not only bear more when they attain adult size, but will prac- 
tically always bear more fruit during the formative period than 
if the fruit alone were in view. 

In pruning an adult vine, two objects must be kept in view: 
(1) the production of the crop of the current year, and (2) the 
maintenance of the proper form of the vine. These objects are 
perhaps of equal importance. On the attainment of the first 
depends the current crop, on that of the second all future crops. 
With vines that have been given a proper shape while young, 
both of these objects can be fully attained. With misshapen 
vines, compromises must frequently be made. 



362 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



HOW THE VINE IS PRUNED 

When a vine has reached the stage of full bearing, pruning 
consists of leaving certain parts of the new wood for fruiting, 
other parts for renewal or the production of wood for the next 
year, and finally other parts for the replacing or shortening of 
arms. All new wood not needed for these purposes and all arms 
to be replaced are removed. 

Whatever the system of pruning, in all Califomian systems, 
each arm of each vine is treated by the same method, modified 




363. The unit of short or spur-pruning. 

only by the vigor of the individual cane, arm, or vine. There 
are two general methods used: spur-pruning and cane-pruning. 
The treatment of a single arm by either of these methods may 
be called the "unit of pruning." 

Spur-pruning, 

The unit of pruning in spur-pruning is illustrated in Fig. 363, 
representing a long arm about seven years old. At the end of 
the arm is shown the two-eye spur (S2) of the previous year 
bearing two canes, (C and CI). Near the base of the arm is 



THE SPURS 363 

shown a single water-sprout (WS) growing out of old wood. Such 
an arm would normally bear other canes, but as they would all 
be removed entirely at pruning they are omitted to simplify the 
figure. (Fig. 363 and others from Calif. Bulletins 241, 246.) 

In pruning such an arm, one of the canes growing out of the 
spur of the previous year (*S2) is cut back to form a new spur 
and the other removed entirely. In deciding on which cane to 
use for the new spur, we must choose one that is suitable for 
fruiting — that is, well ripened, of moderate thickness, and with 
well^ormed buds. Of those that fulfil this condition, we must 
choose that which is in the best position to preserve the form of 
the vine. This, in most cases, will be the lowest (C m Fig. 363), 
because it least increases the length of the arm. If the lowest, 
however, is weak, broken, or otherwise unsuitable, we are 
obliged to take one higher up. 

When a cane arising from the base bud of the spur of the 
previous year is chosen for the new spur, the length of the arm 
is increased imperceptibly. A spur from the first bud (C, Fig. 
363) will lengthen it usually httle over an inch, one from the 
second bud (C) 3 or 4 inches. In any case, the arm finally 
becomes too long, like the one in the figure. It must then be 
shortened or replaced. This can be done by using a conveniently 
placed water-sprout for a replacing spur as at R, and cutting 
back the arm in the place indicated by the line g. 

This cutting back of an arm should be deferred until the 
following year, as the replacing spur will produce Httle or no 
fmit. In the meanwhile the fruit-spur from cane C will bear a 
crop and the replacing spur R "^dU produce fruit-wood for the fol- 
lowing year. 

The cane chosen (C, Fig. 363) is cut at a, b, or d, leaving a 
fruit-spur of one, two, or three fruit-buds and the cane CI 
removed entirely by a cut at /. The more vigorous the variety 
and the particular cane, the more buds should be left. The 
watersprout is cut back at a, leaving a replacing spur of one 



364 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



eye. Of course, a replacing spur is left only in case the arm is too 
long and will require shortening the next year. 

The unit in short pruning consists, then, of a single fruit- 
spur of one, two, or three fruit-buds. 

Cane-pruning. 

The unit of pruning in long and half-long systems is shown 
in Fig. 364 and consists of a fruit-cane, F2, which has produced 
the crop of the previous season and a renewal spur, Si, which 
has produced fruit-wood for the present season. 

In pruning, the fruit-cane F2 (Fig. 364) is removed entirely 
at g. The upper cane, C, of the renewal spur, SI, is used for a 




364. The unit of the long or half-long form of pruning, 



new fruit-cane and shortened to about / for half -long and to 
about /I for long pruning. The lower cane, CI, is cut back at a 
to form a renewal spur, S, which will produce the new wood for 
the next winter pruning. 

This is the normal method of procedure, but various modifi- 
cations are often necessary. If the cane C (in Fig. 364) is un- 



PRUNING IN SUMMER 365 

suitable on account of lack of vigor, other canes such as CI, or 
even B, D, near the base of the old fruit-cane, may be used for 
a new fruit-cane. The essential point is that the cane used for 
this purpose shall originate from two-year-old wood. In the same 
way, any suitably placed cane may be used for a renewal 
spur, watersprouts from three-year, four-year, or older wood 
being available {RP). The essential point in this case is that 
the renewal spur shall be below the fruit-cane, that is, nearer 
the trunk. 

R^lacing-spurs for shortening the arms are occasionally 
needed as in spur-pruning, but usually the same spur can be 
used both for renewal and replacing. The watersprout RP 
may be used for this purpose, cutting it at h or 6, according to 
its vigor, 

SUMMEK OR HERBACEOUS PRUNING 

Summer pruning, of which there are many forms, consists 
in the removal of buds, shoots, or leaves while they are green 
or herbaceous, and is performed, therefore, while the vine is 
growing or active. 

The effects of summer pruning are in some respects very 
different from those of winter pruning, and in some quite the 
opposite. If we remove a part of a cane in the winter, we do not 
weaken the vine; in fact, we may strengthen it indirectly by 
diminishing the bearing. If we remove a growing cane in the 
summer, on the contrary, we weaken the vine because we 
remove leaves which are its principal feeding organs and to 
which it owes its vigor. (See Principle No. 1, page 353.) 

This weakening effect is greatest in the middle of summer 
when the vine is most active and most in need of the food sup- 
plied by the leaves. The removal of all the leaves by defoUating 
insects at this time may kill the vine. It is not so great early 
in the spring, when we can remove a certain number of small 
shoots without serious injury. In fact, vines struck by spring 



366 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

frosts are often more vigorous the following year because the 
weakness due to removal of leaves is more than counterbalanced 
by the strengthening due to lack of crop. It is least harmful 
late in the autumn after the canes have matured and the leaves 
begin to turn yellow. 

The removal of growing shoots or parts of shoots has also 
an effect similar to that of winter pruning — the concentration 
of the growth of the vine on the parts that remain. This con- 
centrating effect and the weakening effect occur in inverse 
ratio and vary according to the time and method of operation. 
In early spring, at the starting of the shoots, the weakening 
effect is very slight and the concentrating effect almost as marked 
as that of winter pruning. In early sunmier, with the vines in 
full growth, the weakening effect may be sufficient to neutralize 
completely the concentrating effect, i. e., the removal of some 
of the shoots may so weaken the vine that there will be no in- 
crease of growth in those that are left. Still later, the weakening 
effect may exceed the concentrating effect, i. e., the shoots which 
remain will make less growth than if none had been removed. 

Summer pruning has various uses, of which the principal 
are: 

1. To direct the growth into useful parts of the vine: disbudding; 
thinning of shoots and topping of young vines; suckering; watersprouting. 

2. To protect rapidly growing shoots from injury by wind or culti- 
vators: pinching and topping. 

3. To moderate the vigor of the vine and so increase its bearing: 
pinching, topping. 

4. To increase the size of fruit (at expense of sweetness) : topping. 

5. To increase the shade on the fruit: topping or pinching to promote 
upright position of shoots and growth of laterals. 

6. To decrease the shade on the fruit: defoUating. 

Three other operations performed in summer may be considered as 
forms of summer pruning: 

7. Thinning of the fruit. 

8. Ringing. 

9. Removal of cion and surface roots. 



SUMMER PRUNING 367 

Disbudding. 

The removal of buds is practised on young vines the second 
and third years. It consists in removing the buds from the lower 
part of the stem in order to concentrate the growth in the shoots 
above and to avoid the production of canes low down where they 
would have to be cut off later. The buds are removed in the form 
of shoots, after they have growoi an inch or two. Many of them 
are dormant or adventitious and the attempt to remove them 
earher (as real buds) would make it necessary to go over the 
viney^d too often. The sooner they are removed, however, 
the better, before they have used up much of the reserves of 
the vine and when the concentrating effect of their removal is 
at its maximum. On younger vines which have not yet formed 
a stem, it consists in removing all the buds but one in order to 
concentrate all the growth into a single shoot from which the 
following year the stem will be formed. 

Thinning of shoots. 

The purpose of this operation is the same as that of disbud- 
ding. It is performed after the shoots have grown several inches 
or more. It is inferior to early disbudding as it is more weaken- 
ing to the vine and the concentrating effect is correspondingly 
less. It is simpler than disbudding, as it necessitates going over 
the vineyard only once. It is most useful the third year on 
vmes which have been cut back to two buds at the end of the 
second season's growth. 

Topping the young vines. 

When by disbudding or thinning of shoots the second year 
all the growth has been concentrated into a single shoot, this 
shoot will grow with great vigor. When it has grown about 12 
inches above the top of the stake, that is, above the height at 
which it is intended to develop the head, it should be topped or 
stopped. This topping has the effect of forcing the growth of 



368 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

laterals. These laterals can be used at the following winter 
pruning as fruit-spurs and as the beginning of permanent arms. 
If this topping is not performed, there may be very few buds on 
the cane, when mature, at the height at which it is desired to 
make a head. It will be difficult, therefore, to find buds in the 
proper place for the development of the arms and to produce 
the crop of grapes which the vine should yield the third year. 
In the third summer, the number of shoots will be small for 
the vigor of the young vine. They will grow rapidly and be very 
Hable to be broken off by the wind while tender and succulent. 
If topped before they are long enough to afford sufficient lever- 
age to the force of the wind, they will have time to lignify their 
tissues and become tough enough to withstand the wind-pres- 
sure. Topping at this time helps to keep the shoots upright and 
makes it easier to give the arms the proper direction at the fol- 
lowing winter pruning. 

Suckering. 

The removal of all shoots which originate at or below the 
surface of the ground is known as suckering. Neglect of sucker- 
ing results in diminished vigor of the whole above-ground part 
of the vine. The suckers bear little or no fruit and, growing 
vigorously, they appropriate the sap which should nourish the 
whole vine. Finally, the top may die, the whole growth go into 
the suckers, and all the benefits of a properly shaped vine will 
be lost. Such a vine can be renovated only by cutting off the old 
stump and building up a new vine from a vigorous sucker. 
With grafted vines the consequences are even more serious 
The suckers, coming from the stock, take the sap even more 
easily from the top which is connected to the root by the union 
where the passage of water and food materials is impeded. A 
grafted vine that has been seriously weakened by the prolonged 
growth of suckers is useless and cannot be renovated. 

Suckering should be performed with the greatest care and 



SUMMER PRUNING 369 

thoroughness the first four or five years. This will save a great 
deal of expensive and troublesome work later. Very few suckers 
are produced by vines that have been properly cared for in this 
respect in the first three years, and such vines will usually cease 
to produce any suckers after five or six years. Vines on which 
the suckering has been imperfectly attended to the first three 
years, on the contrary, will always produce an abundant crop 
of underground shoots every year. 

Suckering, hke disbudding, should be undertaken as early 
in thff season as possible, for the reasons already given. Another 
and even more important reason is that suckers removed late, 
and especially those allowed to grow the whole summer, pro- 
mote the formation of dormant buds and of tissue which readily 
forms adventitious buds below ground. 

It is necessary to sucker young vines two or three times in 
the spring. This is performed every time the vines are visited 
for hoeing or tying up. When the suckers are soft and succulent 
they are easily pulled off without cutting. They must be re- 
moved completely from the base. When they become a little 
tough, it is necessary to dig down to their point of origin for 
this purpose. It is worse than useless to remove a sucker par- 
tially. The part that remains forms an underground spur or 
arm which will be a source of perennial trouble. 

Water sprouting. 

The removal of sterile shoots is called watersprouting. 
When it is practised to prevent growth in places where growth is 
not wanted, or to concentrate growth in parts where it is wanted, 
it is advisable. The removal of all sterile shoots in all cases on 
the theory that they are useless, however, is mistaken practice. 

The growth of a large number of watersprouts is usually an 
indication that the full vigor of the vine is not being used for 
the production of crop. The cure for this is longer, or a different 
style of, winter pruning. The production of sterile shoots on 

X 



370 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

what ought to be fruit-wood often indicates some cultural error, 
such as excess of water, nitrogen, or humus, too late growth of 
the vine in autumn, or excessive vigor. 

Watersprouts may be removed with good results in certain 
cases. If the vines are weak, the growth may be concentrated 
by this means in the bearing shoots, which will thus be able to 
nourish their crop better. In this case the watersprouts must 
be removed early, before they have grown more than a few 
inches; otherwise, the vine will be still further weakened, and 
the trouble increased the following year. If the vines are exces- 
sively vigorous, diminishing the foliage by the late removal of 
watersprouts may correct the defect. It is more reasonable, 
however, to utilize this vigor for crop-production by a change 
in the winter pruning. Watersprouts are sometimes trouble- 
some by growing through the bunches, making it impossible 
to gather the crop without injury. This is particularly harmful 
with shipping-grapes. When much of this trouble exists, it 
indicates that the vine has an unsuitable shape. This can be 
modified in the winter pruning by spreading the vine sufficiently 
to allow all the bunches to hang free. 

Sterile shoots are by no means completely useless. The 
foliage they produce nourishes the vine and makes it more 
capable of bearing fruit. They are needed for use as renewal- 
and replacing-spurs, for which purpose they are better than 
fruitful shoots, being more vigorous. 

Pinching. 

The removal of the growing tip of a shoot with thumb and 
finger is usually called pinching. Its weakening effect is very 
slight, as no expanded leaves and a very small amount of 
material are sacrificed. 

The immediate effect of pinching is to arrest the elongation 
of the shoot. If performed when the shoot is 15 to 18 inches long, 
the shoot has time to become tough enough to resist the wind. 



SUMMER PRUNING 371 

Shoots pinched as early as this usually produce a new growing- 
tip, which later can not be distinguished from the original. 
Later pinching usually causes the growth of several strong 
laterals. The best stage of gi'owth for the first pinching is 
shown in Fig. 360 (page 350). 

Pinching fruit-shoots, just before blossoming, tends to make 
the fruit "set" better. It is, therefore, a remedy for coulure, 
or shedding of fruit. Pinching the first shoots on a fruit-cane 
tends to promote the starting of other buds, and therefore the 
production of more bunches. By pinching, we can accomplish 
most of the objects of topping with a minimum weakening effect 
on the vine. 

Toppi7ig. 

The operation of topping consists in removing one, two, or 
more feet of the end of a growing shoot, usually in June and 
July or later. In some regions, topping is practised regularly 
twice or even three times in the season. In general, it is more 
used in the cooler districts than in the hotter. 

If practised early, topping has much the same effect as pinch- 
ing. It tends to keep the canes upright and to cause the develop- 
ment of laterals. It involves the removal of leaves and is there- 
fore weakening, which may be an advantage with extra-vigor- 
ous vines. In very windy districts, it is necessary to prevent 
the shoots being broken off entirely by the wind. The later the 
topping is performed, the more leaves are removed and the 
more weakening is the practice to the vine. Constant severe 
topping may have a serious effect on the vigor of even the 
strongest ^dnes. 

In general, topping tends to increase the size of the grapes 
and to decrease their quality. For table-grapes on vigorous 
vines it is sometimes an advantage, if not carried too far. 
At least three or four leaves should be left above the fruit in 
early topping, and seven or eight in late. For wine- or raisin- 



372 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

grapes, it is seldom advisable, as it decreases the sugar and flavor 
of the grapes. With long-pruned vines, especially when trellised, 
it is often possible to obtain the benefits of the practice 
without its defects by topping only the shoots on the fruit- 
canes and allowing the shoots on the replacing spurs to grow 
normally. 

Both pinching and topping are practised frequently with the 
object of protecting the fruit from sunburn by increasing the 
shade on the grapes. For this purpose, pinching is much su- 
perior to topping. 

When a shoot is allowed to grow without interference, it 
takes at first a more or less upright direction. As it increases 
in length, the weight of the shoot tends to bend it over to a more 
or less horizontal or downward direction. With certain rapidly 
elongating varieties, the shoots bend over and take a reclining 
position, resting for a considerable part of their length on the 
ground. With nearly all varieties, they will finally bend out- 
ward and downward sufficiently to open up the center of the 
vine to the sun. 

In many cases, this opening up of the center is an advantage, 
promoting the coloring of the grapes and the control of oidium. 
In some cases it encourages sunburn of the grapes. Sunburn, 
however, is not due alone to the direct rays of the sun. This is 
proved by the fact that some bunches completely exposed do 
not sunburn while other bunches much shaded may be injured. 
The trouble occurs in vineyards where the shade temperature 
seldom goes above 100° F. and may not occur in others where 
it often rises to 1 10° F. 

The commonest form of sunburn is due to an excess of evap- 
oration over sap-supply. If more water is lost through the 
skin of the grapes than is supplied through the stem, it will dry 
up. An excess or a deficiency of water in the soil may curtail 
the sap-supply and sunburn result. Defective or diseased roots, 
wounds, or fungus in stem or arms, may have the same effect. 



SUMMER PRUNING 373 

Increasing the shade, therefore, is merely a paUiative, and any 
method which weakens the vine will increase the trouble. 

If we pmch the growing shoots once or twice before they 
are 3 feet long, we increase the shade in two ways: (1) They 
grow more upright as they are relieved from the weight of the 
growing top until they are sufficiently lignified to retain their 
upright position; (2) they produce laterals which increase the 
number of leaves near their bases and over the head of the 
vine. Topping, being performed later, is less effective in these 
respects, and, moreover, involving the removal of feeding- 
leaves, may weaken the vine so much as to increase the trouble. 

Defoliating. 

The development of the color of the grapes is influenced more 
by the light than by the heat of the sun. The coloring of Tokay 
grapes can sometimes be facilitated in the cooler districts by 
means which expose the bunches to more sunHght. One of 
these means is the removal of leaves. This of course will tend 
to weaken the vine. If the vines are excessively vigorous, this 
may not be a disadvantage. If only the leaves in the center 
of the vine, which have already begun to turn yellow, are 
removed, the weakening effect may be very slight. Better 
isolation, however, can usually be obtained more profitably 
by changing the form of the vine or by thinning the bunches. 

Removal of the interior leaves may be useful in some cases, 
with very late varieties, to protect the fruit from molding after 
rains. It allows sun and air to reach the grapes freely and to 
evaporate the moisture from their surfaces quickly. 

Allowing the sheep to eat the leaves inunediately or soon 
after gathering the crop, sometimes known as "sheeping," 
is undoubtedly a bad practice. It removes the leaves before 
they have fulfilled their important duty of providing the reserve 
food to be stored up in cane, trunk, and roots for the growth of 
the following spring. 



374 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

Thinning the fruit. 

Many otherwise suitable grapes do not ship well on account 
of the excessive compactness of the bunch. A compact bunch 
is difficult to pack without injury and cannot be freed from 
unperfect berries without spoiling good berries. 

This excessive compactness can be prevented by thinning 
before the berries are one-thu'd grown. Thinning, moreover, 
increases the size of the berries, hastens ripening, promotes 
coloring, and lessens some forms of simburn. The practice is 
regularly followed with success by many growers of Tokay, 
Black Morocco, Luglienga, and other grapes in which the 
bunches are usually too compact. While apparently costly, the 
expense is often more than counterbalanced by the saving in 
trimming the ripe grapes. The increase of quahty thus becomes 
a net gain. 

The bunches are thinned at any time after the berries have 
set and before they have reached one-third their mature 
diameter. 

No bunches are removed, but only a certain proportion of 
the berries in each bunch. The number of berries to be removed 
will depend on how compact the unthinned bunches usually 
become. In general, it varies from one-thnd to one-half of the 
total number. The thinning is effected by cutting out several 
of the side branchlets of the bunch. The branchlets should be 
removed principally from the part of the bunch which has most 
tendency to compactness, usually the upper part. The work can 
be performed very rapidly, as no great care is necessary in 
preserving the shape of the bunch. However irregular or one- 
sided the bunch looks immediately after thinning, it will round 
out and become regular before ripening. 

A long narrow-bladed knife or a pair of grape-trimming 
scissors can be used conveniently for this work. When the 
berries are from one-fourth to one-third gro\vn, they may be 
thinned by the fingers alone very rapidly. 



SUMMER PRUNING 375 

Ringing. 

The removal of a ring of bark from a growing shoot or from 
a cane of the previous year constitutes the operation of ringing. 
The ring removed varies in width from 3^- to 3^-inch. If it is 
too narrow, the wound heals too quickly and the full effect of 
the operation is not attained; if too vnde, the shoot may die 
before the ripening of the fruit. The ring is removed from a 
part of the shoot or cane just below the fruit. This prevents 
the passage of the food material to the lower parts of the vine 
andxauses its accumulation in the parts above the incision and 
consequently in the fruit. 

The result on the vines is weakening, as in all kinds of sum- 
mer pruning. It can be employed therefore only on vigorous 
vines, and usually only on those parts to be removed at the fol- 
lowing winter pruning. 

Shoots may be ringed as soon as they begin to become woody 
at the base, that is, a Httle before blossoming and until the time 
when they begin to turn yellow or mature. The canes or spurs 
of the previous winter pruning may be ringed from three weeks 
before blossoming to a month before the ripening of the fruit. 

Early ringing tends to cause the blossoms to set better and 
to combat coulure. It causes the fruit to ripen two or three 
weeks earher and often increases the size of both berries and 
bunches. 

Its weakening effects are greatest in hot climates and it is 
not used in California. In AustraHa it is employed regularly 
with the Black Corinth, the vine which produces the small 
seedless gi'apes from which the currants of commerce are made. 
This vine is of such extraordinary vigor that ringing may be 
practised every year without injury. It is even possible to ring 
the main trunk of the vine with good results. 

The ringing may be performed wdth an ordinary budding- 
knife, but can be accomplished quickly and well only with one 
of the special iastruments made for the purpose. 



376 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

Removal of surface roots. 

The final position of the feeding-roots depends on the soil 
conditions and cannot be influenced by pruning. The position 
of the main roots, however, can be modified to some extent in 
certain cases. 

Young vines in some soils tend to start roots at or very close 
to the surface of the ground. This is especially frequent where 
summer irrigation is practised. If these roots are allowed to 
grow, they will form main roots and are hable to injury in tillage. 
In the first and second years, therefore, it is advisable to cut off 
any roots that form within 3 or 4 inches of the surface. This 
can be accomplished at the same time that the vines are hoed 
and suckered. When grafted vines are planted, the union is 
placed above ground but is covered by "hilling-up." This may 
cause roots to start from the cion. These roots must be carefully 
cut off before they become large or the vine will fail to nourish 
its resistant roots. 

WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT 

The possible length of life of a vinifera vine, so far as we know, 
is unlimited. The actual profitable life varies from a few years 
to fifty or more. Vines are sometimes killed by disease or un- 
usually unfavorable conditions, such as severe frosts, and pro- 
longed drought. Most vines fail and become unprofitable from 
the effects of an accumulation of small injuries. Among the 
chief of these are prunmg-wounds. Wounds are not only harm- 
ful in themselves by destroying wood, bark, and other conducting 
tissue, but they allow the entrance of boring insects and wood- 
destroying fungi whose effects are even more destructive. 

All pruning wounds, therefore, should be made as small as 
possible, especially in the main body and other permanent 
parts of the vine. The necessity of making large wounds can 
be avoided to a great extent by foresight. 



TREATING THE WOUNDS 



377 



Useless shoots and canes should be removed while they are 
small and young. Necessary renewals of arms or branches should 
be made before the part to be suppressed becomes too large. 
When large wounds are unavoidable, they should be made as 
smooth as possible and protected by an antiseptic swabbing with 
2 per cent copper-sulfate solution and covered with a good white- 
lead paint. The vine heals its wounds from the inside by the 
production of gummy matters or thyloses which fill up the cells 
and tissue and so prevent loss of sap. It does not cover the 
wounds with healing tissue from the 
outside with the facility of many fruit- 
trees. Wounds much over an inch in 
diameter seldom heal over completely. 

By careful and skilKul use of the 
pruning tools, the harm of necessary 
wounds can be reduced to a minimum. 
All cuts should be made clean and 
smooth. This requires that the shears 
should be of good quaHty and kept 
sharp. The cuts should be made in 
such a way that there is no cracking 
or splitting of the wood. This is accompUshed by holding the 
shears in the proper way and at the proper angle and by avoid- 
ing any undue bending of the portion of the vine to be removed. 
Canes for spurs should be cut obhquely, and not at a right 
angle to the grain. In cutting off a cane or spur entirely, the 
blade of the shears should be placed against the vine, and 
should cut upward as shown in Fig. 365. This will insure a 
clean close cut without splitting. Any cut on the body of the 
vine should be made in such a way as to leave as small a 
wound as possible and at the same time to leave no projecting 
stub. Stubs of dead wood prevent healing over and interfere 
considerably with future pruning. 

In spur-pruning, it is considered best to cut through the bud 




365. 



Proper way of applying 
the shears. 



378 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



above the last one that it is desired to have grow, as at C in 
Fig. 366. This leaves the woody diaphragm intact and pro- 
tects the spur from injury. If the spur is cut at CI, a long piece 
of intemode is left, exposing the pith. As this pith dries and 
skrinks, it allows water to enter and forms an excellent place 
for molds to grow which may destroy the bud below. It requires 
some skill and practice to cut exactly in the 
right place and, if by mistake the cut is made 
just below the diaphragm, the breeding-place 
for molds has its maximum size. For this 
reason, most primers make the cut at C2 about 
3/^-inch above the last bud. If the shears are 
sharp and the cut made at an angle of about 
45 degrees behind the bud, no injury results. 
In removing a piece of old wood at the 
base of a spur or fruit-cane, it is best to leave 
a little projecting stub. (See Fig. 366.) Too 
close cutting in this case is liable to injure the 
spur or cane. The projecting stub can be re- 
moved when the spur has grown larger the fol- 
lowing year without danger of injury. 

PRUNINGS AND TOOLS 



After the pruning is completed, the "brush" 
and biids, ancf?iow ^r cuttings must be removed. This is much 
to make the cuts facilitated if the pruners are careful in placing 
spur. the wood they remove. The usual method is to 

place the wood from two adjoining rows in the space between 
them, either in a long line or in piles between four vines. 

These rows or piles can then be carried by hand or with a 
hay-fork and concentrated in large piles in the avenues or on 
the borders of the vineyard, where they are burned as soon as 
they are sufficiently dry. The heat from these fires is so great 




DISPOSING OF THE PRUNINGS 



379 




367. A brush burner. 



that it sometimes injures neighboring vines, especially if the 

burning is deferred until the starting of the buds. 

A better method is to use a brush-burner, one form of which 

is shown in Fig. 367. This consists of an iron truck with a per- 
forated bottom. A fire is started 
in the truck which is then drawn 
slowly down a free row by a 
quiet horse trained to the work. 
Two men collect the brush in the 
adjoining rows and throw it into 
the moving truck, where it burns 
without danger of injuring the 
vines, and at a lower tempera- 
ture than in the large piles. The 

ashes are distributed equally over the vineyard. The method 

is difficult to adapt to trellised vineyards or to vines with fruit- 
canes. 

Gathering the brush with a hay-rake is 

sometimes practised, but is not satisfactory 

and is likely to injure the vines. In some 

countries, the vine-pinmings are used for 

fuel, for manure, and even for cattle-feed 

after cuttmg and crushing. The labor cost 

in Cahfornia seems at present to prevent 

economical utilization in any of these 

ways. 

Pruning tools. 

The best tool is a pair of shears of the 
Swiss form (see small pair Fig. 368). If 
vines are properly pruned every year, it will 
seldom be necessaiy to make cuts too large qqq ^ t f 
for these shears except when arms have to be grape-pmning tools. 

, , ■, , » c -J 1 Two-hand shears, one- 

replaced or last year s iruit-canes removed, hand shears, curved saw. 




380 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

For this heavier work, a curved saw should be carried by 
the pruner. A folding saw with adjustable blade and specially- 
filed long narrow teeth is the best. For vines which make a 
very heavy growth or which have been unskilfully pruned, 
a pair of two-handed pruning-shears similar to those used 
for tree-pruning may be used. If these are of good form, kept 
sharp, and carefully used so as to avoid splitting the arms 
or cutting too deeply into the old wood, good work may be 
accomplished with them. 

SYSTEMS AND METHODS OF VINIFERA. PRUNING 

Very many systems of pi-uning are appHed to vinifera vines. 
These systems differ in the form given to the body of the vine 
and in the management of the annual growth. Some of the 
differences depend on variations in the nature of the vines, on 
the cultural and growing conditions of the district, and on the 
objects of the grower. Others are unessential. 

Before beginning work, the pruner should form a mental 
picture of an ideal vine of the form desired. Vines are subject 
to so many accidents of weather, cultivation, and disease that, 
even with the greatest care and skill, it may be impossible to 
secure a single ideal vine in the vineyard. The pattern vine, 
however, must exist in the pruner's mind or all his vines will 
be unnecessarily defective. With this ideal or pattern before 
him, he is able to take such measures as will direct the energies 
of the vine, as much as possible, in the right direction and 
counteract all contrary influences and thus make each vine 
approach as nearly as possible the perfect model. 

This mental picture is particularly necessary in the treat- 
ment of young vines. Only when it is strongly impressed on the 
imagination, is it possible to use such means and measures as 
will most rapidly and economically bring the vine to profitable 
maturity. 



METHODS IN CALIFORNIA 381 

CaUfornian systems. 

The systems of vinifera-pnining in use in California may be 
divided into two classes, according to the arrangement of the 
arms on the trmik of the vine: (1) In the commonest systems, 
there is a definite head to the trunk, from which all the arms 
arise symmetrically at nearly the same level. The vines of 
these systems may be called "headed vines." (2) In the 
other systems, the trunk is elongated 4 to 8 feet and the arms 
are distributed regularly along the whole or the greater part of 
its lertgth. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like 
form of the trunks, are called cordons. 

The headed vines are divided according to the length of the 
vertical trunk into (1) high, 2 to 4 feet, (2) medium, 1 to 1}/^ 
feet, and (3) low, to 6 inches. The cordons may be vertical or 
horizontal, according to the direction of the trunk, which is 
from 4 to 8 feet long. The horizontal cordons may be single 
(unilateral), or composed of two branches extending in oppo- 
site directions (bilateral). Double and even multiple vertical 
cordons occur, but they are very inadvisable and have no 
advantages. 

The arrangements of the arms of a headed vine may be sym- 
metrical in all directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such 
a vine is said to be vase-formed, although the hollow center 
which this term implies is not essential. This is the form devel- 
oped in most Califomian vineyards whether of wine-, raisin-, 
or shipping-grapes. It is suitable for the square system of plant- 
ing and cross-cultivation. When vines are planted in the avenue 
system, particularly when trellised and where cross-cultivation 
is impossible, the arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in 
a vertical plane. This arrangement is essential for the econom- 
ical working of trellised vines. 

On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at 
as regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk, from the 
top to within 12 to 15 inches of the bottom. On the horizontal 



382 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

cordon the arms are arranged similarly, but as nearly as pos- 
sible on the upper side of the trunk only. 

Each of these systems may be again divided into two sub- 
systems, according to the management of the annual growth or 
canes: (1). In one, spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for 
fruit-production. This system is called short or spur-pruning. 
(2). In the other, long canes are left for fruit-production. This 
is called long or cane-pruning. In rare cases an intermediate 
form is adopted in which long spurs or short canes of five or 
six eyes are left. In cane-pruning, each fruit-cane is accompanied 
by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also accompany 
half-long pruning. Systems of pruning in which only long 
canes are left without renewal spurs are not in use in Califor- 
nia. In all systems, replacing spurs are left wherever and 
whenever needed. 

Other modifications are introduced by the manner of dis- 
posal of the fruit-canes. These may be tied up vertically to a 
stake driven at the foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and 
tied to this same stake, or they may be tied laterally to wires 
stretching along the rows in a horizontal, ascending, or 
descending direction. 

The different systems differ therefore in: (1) The shape, 
length, and direction of the trunk; (2) the arrangement of the 
arms; (3) the use of fruit-spurs or fruit-canes with renewal 
spurs; (4) the disposal of the fruit-canes. 

The principal possibilities are shown in the following table: 

A. Head-pnming: Vase-form. 

1. High trunk ) i (a) Fruit-spurs, or 

2. Medium trunk > with •< (b) Half-long canes and renewal spurs, or 

3. Low trunk ) ( (c) Fruit-canes and renewal spurs; canes 

vertical or bowed. 

B. Head-'pruning: Fan-shaped; Trellised. 

1. High trunk: Fruit-canes and renewal spurs; canes descending. 

2. Medium trunk: Fruit-canes and renewal spurs; canes horizontal. 

3. Low trunk: Fruit-canes and renewal spurs; canes ascending. 



CALIFORNIA SYSTEMS 383 

C. Cordon-pruning. 

1. Vertical: Spur; half-long; cane. 

2. Horizontal-unilateral: Spur; haK-long; cane. 

3. Horizontal-bilateral: Spur; half-long; cane. 

All possible combinations indicated by this table represent 
twenty-four variations. Some of these combinations, however, 
are not used and some are rare. Eight of the most common are 
shown in Figs. 369-373. Forms with low trunks are also com- 
mon, but inadvisable. (See Fig. 374.) 




369. Forms of heads of vinifera vines. A, spur-pruning, high trunk. B, spur- 
pruning, medium trunk. C, half-long pruning, medium trunk. 

A headed vase-formed vine, with a medium trunk and short 
fruit-spurs, is shown in Fig. 369B. This is the most common 
system in all parts of California and is suited for all small-grow- 
ing vines which bear on the lower buds, for most wine-grapes 
and for Muscats. The unit of pruning in this case is a fruit-spur 
of one, two, or three intemodes, according to the vigor of the 
variety and of the individual cane. 

The vine shown in Fig. 3G9A differs from 369B only in the 
higher trunk with longer arms. It is commonly used for Tokay 
and other large-growing varieties, especially when growing in 
rich soil and when planted far apart. 



384 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



The vine in Fig. 369C has the same form of body as A and B, 
except that the arms are somewhat less numerous. The unit 
of pruning is a short fruit-cane of four to five internodes, accom- 
panied by a renewal spur of one mtemode. It is suited for 
vigorous table-grapes, which do not bear well on short spurs. 
It is employed especially for the Cornichon and Malaga, in 

rich soil. This is a difficult 
system to keep in good 
shape owing to the tendency 
for all the vigor to go to 
growth at the end of the 
fruit-canes. It is difficult to 
secure vigorous canes on the 
renewal spurs. Occasional 
short pruning is usually 
necessary to keep the vines 
in proper shape. 

The example in Fig. 
370A is similar to 369C in 
form, but the number of 
arms is still further reduced 
to two, three, or at most 
four. The unit of pruning 
is a fruit-cane of 23^2 to 
33^ feet with its renewal 
spur. Owmg to the length 
of the fruit -canes they 
require support and are tied to a high stake. This method 
is used in a large number of vineyards with Sultanina, Sultana, 
and certain wine-grapes, especially Semillon, Riesling, and 
Cabernet. It is not to be recommended in any case, as it has 
several very serious defects. The difficulty of securing new 
wood from the renewal spurs is even greater than in the system 
shown in Fig. 369C. The length and vertical position of the 




370. Forms of head pruning. A, vertical 
fruit-canes and renewal spurs. B, bowed 
canes and renewal spurs. 



CALIFORNIA METHODS 



385 



fruit-canes cause the main growth and vigor of the vine to be 
expended on the highest shoots. (See Principles 5 and 6, page 
355.) The renewal spurs are thus so shaded that, even though 
their buds start, the shoots make but a weak growth. The result 
is that at the following pruning all the good new wood is at the 
top of the fruit-canes of the previous year, where it cannot be 
utilized. The pruner has to choose then between reverting to 
spur-pruning and getting no crop, or using the weak growth 
from the renewal spurs for fruit-canes, in which case he may 
get blossoms but little or no fruit of any value. Other defects 




371. Fan-shaped head pruning, with canes tied to trellis. 

of this method are that the fruiting shoots are excessively 
vigorous and therefore often tend to drop their blossoms with- 
out setting, and the fruit is massed together so that it ripens 
imevenly and is difficult to gather. It also requires a tall and 
expensive stake. 

An improvement on the last system is shown in Fig. 370B. 
It differs only in the method of treating the fruit-canes. These 
are bent over in the form of a circle and tied by their middle 
part to a stake which may be smaller and lower than that needed 
for the vertical canes. This bowing of the canes has several 
useful effects. The change of direction moderates the ten- 



386 



VINIFERA GRAPE'TRAINING 



dency of the vigor of the vine to expend itself only on the ter- 
minal shoots. More shoots, therefore, are formed on the fruit- 
canes and as their vigor is somewhat decreased they tend to be 
more fruitful. The slight mechanical injury caused by the 
bending operates in the same direction. (See Principle 4, 
page 354.) The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the 
fruit-canes causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, 
which soon grow above the fruit-shoots and obtain the light and 
air they need for their proper development. This method is 
used successfully in the coast counties 
for certain wine-grapes such as Riesling, 
Cabernet, and Semillon. It is unsuited 
to large vigorous varieties or for vines on 
rich soil planted wide apart. In these 
cases two fruit-canes are usually insuffi- 
cient, and, if more are used, the grapes 
and leaves are so massed together that 
they are subject to oidium and do not 
ripen evenly or well. The bowing and 
tying of the canes requires considerable 
skill and care on the part of the work- 
men. 

The body, arms, and annual pruning 
of the system shown in Fig. 371 are simi- 
lar to those of Fig. 370, with the excep- 
tion that the arms are given a fan-shaped 
arrangement in one plane. It differs in 
the disposal of the fruit-canes, which are 
supported by a trellis stretching along 
the row from vine to vine. This method is largely used for the 
Sultanina (Thompson Seedless), and is the best system for 
vigorous vines which require long pruning, wherever it is pos- 
sible to dispense with cross-cultivation. It is also suitable for 
any long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile soil. 




372. Single vertical 
cordon vinifera, with 
fruit-spurs. 



VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL FORMS 387 

A four-year-old Emperor vine, illustrating the vertical 
cordon system, is shown in Fig. 372. It consists of an upright 
trunk 4:}4 f^et high with short arms and fruit-spurs scattered 
evenly and symmetrically from the top to "wdthin 15 inches of 
the bottom. This system is used in many Emperor vineyards 
in the San Joaquin Valley. Its advantages are that it allows 
the large development of the vine and the large number of 



.^^^e^-^M^r^ 




^^ 



373. Unilateral horizontal cordon, 
with fruit-spurs. 

spurs which the vigor of the Emperor demands, without, on 
the one hand, crowding the fi-uit by the proximity of the spurs, 
or, on the other hand, spreading the vine so much that cultiva- 
tion is interfered with. It also permits cross-cultivation. One 
of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees of 
temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the 
ripening and coloring are often imeven. A more vital defect is 
that it cannot be maintained permanently. The arms and spurs 
at the top of the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine 
and the lower arms and spurs become weaker each year until 
finally no gro"v\i:h at all is secured below. After several years, 
most of the vines therefore lose theii' character of cordons and 
become simply headed vines -^dth abnormally long trunks. 
The cordon can be reestablished, in this case, by aUo^dng a 
\'igorous sucker to develop one year, from which to form a new 
tiTink the next. The following year the old trunk is removed 
entirely. An objection to this method is that it makes very large 
wounds in the most vital part of the vine — the base of the 
trunk. 

A four-year-old Colombar vine, illustrating the unilateral 
horizontal cordon system is shown in Fig. 373. It consists of 



388 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



a trunk about 7 feet long, supported horizontally by a wire 
2 feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the 
whole horizontal part of the trunk. This system accomplishes 
the same objects as the vertical cordon except the possibility 
of cross-cultivation. It allows a large development of the vine 
and numerous fruit-spurs without crowding. It is superior to 
the vertical cordon in the distribution of the fruit, which is all 
exposed to approximately the same conditions owing to the 
uniform distance of the fruit-spurs from the ground. All parts 
of the trunk producing an annual growth of wood and fruit are 
equally exposed to light and the tendency of the growth to 
occur principally at the part of the trunk farthest removed 




374. Short-pruning in a raisin vineyard. 



THE CALIFORNIA SYSTEMS 389 

from the root is counteracted by the horizontal position. There 
is not the same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of 
vine permanently that there is with the vertical cordon. This 
system should not be used for small weak vines, whether the 
weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature 
of the soil. It is suited only to very vigorous varieties, such as 
Emperor, Ahneria, and the Persian grapes when growing in 
rich moist soil. 

The type of short pruning most commonly adopted in Mus- 
cat raisin vineyards is shown in Fig. 374. Its main defect is 
the shortness of the trunk. 

Periods of development. » 

The first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing a 
vigorous root-system; the next two or three years to building 
up a shapely trunk and head; and a like period to forming the 
full complement of arms. At the end of five to nine years the 
framework of the vine is complete and should undergo no 
particular change of shape except a gradual thickening of trunk 
and arms. 

There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine 
with varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary 
accordingly. These periods do not correspond exactly to periods 
of time, so it may be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year- 
old or a three-year-old vine. There is a diversity of usage in 
denoting the age of a vine. In some sections, a one-year-old 
vine means a vine that is in its first year. In others, it means 
a vine that has completed its first year and is in its second. 
The former method is adopted here as the most convenient. 
One vine under certain conditions will reach the same stage of 
development in two years that another will reach only in three 
or four years under other conditions. The range of time of 
these periods is about as follows: 



390 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

First period — Formation of a strong root-system 1 to 2 years 

Second period — Formation of stem or trunk 1 year 

Third period — Formation of head 2 to 3 years 

Fourth period — Complete development of the arms 2 to 3 years 

Total time of formation of framework 6 to 9 years 

Under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and sec- 
ond periods may be included in the first year and a completely 
formed vine may be developed in five years. 

Choice of a system. 

In choosing a system, we must consider carefully the char- 
acteristics of the particular variety we are growing. A variety 
which bears only on the upper buds must be pruned "long," 
that is, must be given fruit-canes. It should be noted that many 
varieties, such as Petite Sirah, which wiU bear with short prun- 
ing when grafted on resistant roots, require fmit-canes when 
growing on their own roots. In general, grafted vines require 
shorter pruning than ungrafted. If pruned the same, the 
grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves. 
This seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure 
of Muscat vines grafted on resistant stock. The cultural con- 
ditions also affect the vine in this respect. Vines made vigorous 
by rich soil, abundant moisture, and thorough tillage require 
longer pruning than weaker vines of the same variety. 

The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This 
size will vary from one-quarter of a pound to two or three 
pounds. It is difficult to secure a full crop from a variety whose 
bunches are very small without the use of fruit-canes. Spurs 
will not furnish enough fruit-buds without crowding them in- 
conveniently. On the other hand, some shipping-grapes may 
bear larger crops when pinned long, but the bunches and berries 
may be too small for the best quality. 

The possibilities of development vary much with different 
varieties. A Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover a 



CHOICE OF SYSTEM 391 

quarter of an acre and develop a trunk 4 or 5 feet in circum- 
ference. A Zinfandel vine under the same conditions would 
not reach a tenth of this size in the same time. Vines in a rich 
valley soil will grow much larger than on a poor hillside. The 
size and shape of the trunk must be modified accordingly and 
adapted to the available room or number of vines to the acre. 

The shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much 
as possible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety 
susceptible to oidium, like the Carignane, must be pruned so 
that the fruit and foKage are not unduly massed together. 
Free exposure to light and air are a great protection in this 
respect. The same is true for varieties like the Muscat, which 
have a tendency to coulure if the blossoms are too moist or 
shaded. In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a protection, 
as the air is always colder close to the ground. 

The quahties required in the crop also influence the choice 
of a pruning system. With wine-grapes, even, perfect ripening 
and full flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by hav- 
ing the grapes at a uniform height from the ground and as 
near to it as possible. The same quahties are desirable in raisin- 
grapes, with the addition of large size of the berries. With 
shipping-grapes, large size and perfect condition of the berries 
and bunches are the most essential characteristics. The vine, 
therefore, should be so formed that each bunch hangs clear, 
free from injurious contact with canes or soil, and equally exposed 
to hght and air. 

The maximum retmns in crop depend on the early bearing 
of young vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines, and 
the longevity of the vineyard. These are insured by careful 
attention to all the details of pruning, and 'are possible only 
when the vines are given a suitable form. 

The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great 
measure on the style of pruning. Vines of suitable form are 
tilled, pruned, and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. 



392 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

This depends also both on the form of vine and on care in 
details. 

It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety 
or any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. 
All that can be done is to give the general characteristics of 
the variety and to indicate how these may be modified by 
grafting, soil, or climatic or other conditions. 

The most important characteristic of the variety in making 
a choice of a pruning system is whether it normally or usually 
requires long, half-long, or short pruning. With this idea, the 
principal grapes grown in California, together with all those 
grown at the Experiment Station on which data exist, have been 
divided into five groups in the following list: 

1. Varieties which require long pruning under all conditions: Clairette 
Blanche, Cabernet, Corinth (white and black), Persians, Seedless Sultana, 
Sultanina (white and rose). 

2. Varieties which usually require long pruning: Bastardo, Boal de 
Madeira, Chardonay, Chauche (gris and noir), Colombar, Crabbe's Black 
Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsanne, Marzemino, 
Merlot, Meunier, Muscadelle de Bordelais, Nebbiolo, Pagadebito, Pever- 
ella, Pinots, Rieshng, Robin Noir, Rulander, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, 
Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Steinschiller, Tinta Cao, Tinta Madeira, 
Trousseau, Verdelho, Petit Verdot, WalchriesUng. 

3. Varieties which usually require short pruning: Aleatico, Aligote, As- 
piran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bonarda, Barbarossa, Cata- 
rattu, Chabono, Chasselas, Freisa, Frontignan, Furmint, Grand Noir, 
Grosseblaue, Green Hungarian, Malmsey, Mantuo, Monica, Mission, Mos- 
catello Fino, Mourisco Branco, Mourisco Preto, Negro Amaro, Palomino, 
Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, PizzuteUo di Roma, Black Prince, West's White 
Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, Rozaki, Tinto AmareUa, Vernaccia Bianca, 
Vernaccia Sarda, Lagrain, Valdepenas. 

4. Varieties which require short pruning under all conditions: Aramon, 
Burger, Black Morocco, Mourastel, Muscat of Alexandria, Napoleon, 
Picpoule Blanc and Noir, Flame Tokay, Ugni Blanc, Verdal, Zinfandel, 
Carignane, Mataro. 

5. Varieties of table-grapes which usually require half -long or cordon 
pruning: Almeria (Ohanez), BelUno, Bermestia Bianca and Violacea, Cipro 



REQUIREMENTS OF VARIETIES 393 

Nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, Black Ferrara, Malaga, 
Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre Blanc, Schiradzouli, Zabalkanski. 

These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for 
all cases how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply 
indicate their natural tendencies. Certain methods and con- 
ditions tend to make vines more fruitful. Where these occur, 
shorter pruning than is indicated may be advisable. On the 
other hand, other methods and conditions tend to make the 
vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness. When these occur, 
longer pruning may be advisable. 

The more usual factors which tend toward fruitfulness are : 

Grafting on resistant stock, especially on certain varieties 
such as those of Riparia and Berlandieri; 

Old age of the vines; 

Mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine; 

Large development of the trunk, as in the cordon systems. 

The more usual factors which tend toward vigor at the 
expense of fruitfulness are : 

Rich soil, especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen; 

Youth of the vines; 

Abundant irrigation or rainfall (within limits). 

In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these fac- 
tors, together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which 
the fruit is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the 
vineyard is started to err on the side of short pruning. While 
this may diminish slightly the first one or two crops, the vines 
will gain in vigor and the loss will be made up in subsequent 
crops. 

If the style of pruning results in excessive vigor of the vines, 
it should be changed in the direction of longer pruning with the 
object of utilizing this vigor in the production of crop. This 
change should be gradual, or the risk is run of injuring the 
vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops. 

Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine 



394 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

should determine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the 
vine appears weak, from whatever cause, it should be pruned 
shorter or given less spurs or fruit-canes than the year before. 
On the contrary, if it appears unnecessarily vigorous, more or 
longer spurs or fruit-canes should be left. Every vine should be 
judged by itself. It is not possible to give more than general 
directions for the pruning of the whole vineyard. It cannot be 
well pruned unless the men who do the actual pruning are capable 
of using sufficient judgment properly to modify their methods 
for each individual vine. 

SUPPORTS 

With most systems of pruning, after the vine has reached a 
certain stage of development and its framework is complete, 
it will support itself after the manner of a small tree. When 
the trunk is elongated, as in the cordon systems, the trunk 
requires a permanent support. 

Young vines in all systems require support for at least three 
or four years, and usually longer. A skiKul pruner can build 
up a low vine without a support, but the results are imperfect 
at best and the method requires so much skiU and care that 
there is no economic gain. 

In long or cane-pruning, there must always be support 
for the fruit-canes. The supports needed then are of two 
kinds: (1) Temporary supports to keep young vines in place 
until their trunks become large and strong enough to support 
themselves; and (2) permanent supports for long trunks or for 
the annual fruit-canes. 

Staking. 

As temporary supports, some form of stake is always used. 
Nearly all vine stakes in California are made of redwood, which 
is remarkably adapted to the purpose. It is light, easy to work, 
and very resistant to decay unless made from sapwood. Split 



STAKES AND TRELLISES 395 

stakes are the best, as sawn stakes may be cut diagonally across 
the grain and many may break in driving. 

Pine, spruce, poplar, willow, or any available wood may be 
used for temporary stakes if redwood is not available. Most of 
these woods will last two years and can be made to last four or 
five if treated with copper sulfate. Saplings and small branches 
may sometimes be used conveniently. These should be peeled 
and pointed as soon as cut and then stood for twenty-four hours 
in a tub containing a few inches of a 5 per cent solution of cop- 
per sulfate (bluestone). At the end of this time, the copper sul- 
fate will have penetrated the whole stake and is usually seen 
at the upper end. If the saplings are allowed to dry, even for 
a few days, it wiU require a very much longer time to impreg- 
nate them with the antiseptic. 

Other materials may sometimes be conveniently used for 
temporary stakes. The commonest of these is the Spanish 
reed or bamboo, Arundo Donax, used in many places as a wind- 
break. These are somewhat slender for the purpose and re- 
quire much readjusting, but will serve when better material is 
not available. 

The length of the stake depends principally on the height 
at which it is desired to head the vine and on the character of 
the soil. It should be of such length, that, after being driven 
into the ground, sufficient will be below the surface to keep it 
firm and prevent its being loosened by the force of the wind 
acting on the vine which is tied to it, and sufficient above the 
surface to extend for 2 inches above the height at which it is 
intended to head the vines. Its thickness should be in propor- 
tion to its height. 

When redwood is used, a stake 30 inches long and 134 inches 
square will be sufficient in firm ground for small-growing vines 
like the Zinfandel. This will allow 15 inches to be driven into 
the ground and leave 15 inches above, which is sufficient for 
vines to be headed at 12 inches. If the ground is loose or sandy, 



39G VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

a slightly longer stake is advisable. For strong-growing varieties, 
such as Carignane or Tokay, especially when growing in rich 
soil, a stake 2 inches square and 36 to 48 inches long is necessary. 
This will permit the heading of the vine at 18 to 30 inches. 
When a stake is used as a permanent support for fruit-canes, 
it is usually made 6 feet long and 2 or 23^ inches in diameter. 
A somewhat shorter stake, 4 to 5 feet, will suffice if the canes 
are bowed. A similar stake is needed for a vertical cordon. 

Trellising. 

A trellis consists of one, two, or rarely three wires stretched 
horizontally along the rows. The wires are held at the ends by 
heavy stakes or fence-posts braced firmly. These wires are sup- 
ported at intervals along the row by stakes of appropriate 
height. A tall stake at each vine is convenient for this purpose 
as it serves also for tying up the yearly replacing shoots. This 
stake, however, is expensive and not indispensable. It is usually 
sufficient to place stakes at intervals of two and even three 
vines. Such stakes should be placed between the vines, and 
need be long enough only to reach to the top wire. 

Some growers dispense with these intermediate stakes alto- 
gether. A temporary stake is used with each vine until it has 
developed a self-supporting trunk. The bottom wire is then 
allowed to rest on the head of each vine. If the vines are even 
and well formed, this is a convenient arrangement as it facili- 
tates the tightening of loose wii'es and the repair of those 
which break. 

The height of the first or only wire is usually about 30 inches, 
that of the second 45 inches, and that of the third 57 inches, 
when three are used. In many cases one wire is sufficient to 
support the fruit-canes. In windy locations, the second wire is 
useful to support the growing shoots. With veiy vigorous vines, 
the second wire may be used also for fruit-canes. A third wire 
may be used in this case to support the fruit-shoots, but is 



TRELLIS 397 

seldom or never really needed, and adds much to the cost of 
both installation and maintenance. The wire most used is 
No. 12 galvanized fencing- wire. No. 10 and No. 11 are a Httle 
better, as No. 12 will sometimes break. Some growers use No. 
13 or even No. 14, but such small wires are inadvisable. 

For the horizontal cordon system the same method of trellis- 
ing is used, but the lower wire is mostly placed at 18 to 24 inches 
from the ground. 

For attaching the vines, canes, and shoots to stakes and trel- 
lises, ^ome form of rope or string is commonly employed. The 
balls of twine used on self-binders are convenient and preferred 
by some growers. This twine, however, is not quite strong 
enough for the main body of the vine, especially in windy loca- 
tions, unless doubled, although it is excellent for tying fruit- 
canes to stake or trellis. Old ropes, such as discarded ship 
cables, can sometimes be obtained cheaply, and, if cut into 
suitable lengths, the single strands are easily separated and form 
very good tying material. 

It is false economy to use material for tying of insufficient 
strength or durability. It results in much troublesome extra 
w^ork in retymg or in defective vines. 

In the hands of very careful workmen, nothing is better 
than wire for tying up young vines at the winter pruning. It 
holds the vine permanently and securely. Used carelessly, 
however, it may cut the bark and, unless discretion is used in 
the placing of the tie and care in its removal when necessary, 
the vines may be girdled and killed. The wire from hay-bales 
is suitable for this purpose although it is a little unnecessarily 
heavy. No. 16 galvanized fencing-wire is about the right 
weight. 

Other materials used are raffia for the fruit-canes and osier 
willows for the body of the vine. Raffia is unreliable in strength 
and inferior for this purpose to binding-twine. Nothing is 
better than osier willow to attach the trunk of a young vine to 



398 



VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 



the stake, but it is rarely obtainable and requires special skill 
to use. 

THE PRUNING OF THE YOUNG VINE 

In California, grape-vines for permanent planting in the 
field are in the form of cuttings, one-year-old rooted vines, and 






375. Rooted vine with 
single cane, showing 
where to prune. 



376. Rooted vine 
with two canes, marked 
for pruning. 



377. Rooted vine with 
canes starting at differ- 
ent nodes. 



bench grafts. The rooted vines will need attention on the part 
of the pruner. 

A good rooted vine of average size is shown in Fig. 375. It 
carries a single cane and several good roots. The marks sug- 
gest the pruning. The cane is shortened to one or two buds, 
and the roots to 2 to 4 inches. 

If the rooted vine has more than one cane, all but one of them 
are cut away completely, and this remaining cane is reduced to 
one or two buds. Fig. 376 suggests the pruning of such a vine. 



THE YOUNG VINE 



399 



When canes occur at different nodes or joints, as in Fig. 
377, and all are of equal vigor, it is usually best to leave the 
lowest one. This prevents the growing of a long and awkward 
stock, and gets rid of what is likely to be a more or less decayed 
or imperfect upper joint. 

A rooted vine pruned ready for planting is shown in Fig. 




378. Pruned 
ready for 
planting. 



379. Nursery vine 
with roots at differ- 
ent depths. 




380. Result of planting too deep. 
The base will die and decay, as it 
has no health roots. 



378. The same treatment may be given a bench graft, except 
that care must be taken to remove all roots above the union 
and all shoots below the union. 

An unsatisfactory cutting-grown vine is drawn in Fig. 379, 
with indications where it should be pruned. The cutting was 
too long. It was grown in warm, well-drained soil, so that 
roots have formed at three levels from different nodes. Even 
in this soil, however, the conditions were not favorable for root 
growth at the bottom, so the last two nodes have formed no 
roots. If the cutting had been of five nodes instead of eight, it 



400 VINIFERA GRAPE-TRAINING 

would have made a much better vuie. The roots would have 
been less numerous, but more vigorous. Such a vine can be 
pruned in one of three ways, according to the character of the 
ground in which it is to be planted. In any case, the bottom two 
joints, without good roots, are cut off. If the soil where the 
vine is to be planted is deep and dry, the roots at the next three 
joints may be left and shortened to about 1 inch, as indicated 
in the figure. The roots are so numerous that none of them 
have grown large, and nothing would be gained by leaving them 
longer. For ordinary soils it would be better to remove the 
lower three joints and for wet soils the lower five. 

An unnecessarily long cutting-made or rooted vine is seen 
in Fig. 380, some time after planting. It represents the lower 
part of the underground portion of a vine two or three years 
old. The cutting or rooted vine was at least three joints too 
long, and the lowest part not only furnishes no roots of any 
value but is liable to decay, which may spread into the rest of 
the vine. 

The root system of a properly grown, well-planted and well- 
pruned rooted vine is shown in Fig. 381, as it grows in California. 




381. One year's root growth of a vine properly 
pruned and planted. 



INDEX 



Abelia, 220. 
Acanthopanax, 220. 
Acer, 220. 

Adlum, mentioned, 267. 
Advice, specific, 145. 
^scirius, 221. 
Almond, buds, 55. 

flowering, 229. 
Alternate bearing, 22, 131. 
Althaea, 221. 
Althea, flower-habit, 47. 

shrubby, 225. 
Alyssum, 221. 
Amelanchier, 221. 
Amorpha, 221. 
Ampelopsis, 221. 
Antiseptic methods, 88. 
Apple, dwarf-trained, 259. 

pruning the, 196. 

spur, 21. 

trees, renewing, 158. 

twig, 15, 18, 19, 21, 24, 50, 55. 
Apricot, buds, 36, 55. 

pruning the, 202. 
Aralia, 220. 
Arbor Kniffin, 331. 
Arbors, grape, 341. 
Arbutus, 224. 
Arches, wire, 243. 
Arctostaphylos, 221. 
Arm, defined, 270, 351. 
Arrow-wood, 232. 

Arundo Donax for vine supports, 395. 
Aseptic methods, 88. 
Asphaltum for wounds, 76, 94, 105. 
Avenarius carbolineum, 77. 
Azalea, 229. 

Baccharis, 221. 
Balmer, quoted, 195. 
Bandages for wounds, 76. 
Barberry, 221. 
Bark-bound, 57 



Batchelor and Goodspeed, quoted, 

139. 
Bayberry, 228. 
Beach, quoted, 209. 
Bearberry, 221. 
Bellair, G. A., quoted, 252. 
Bending, 126. 
Bending the vine, 354. 
Benzoin, 221. 
Berberis, 221. 

Bioletti, F. T., article by, 346. 
Bittersweet, 222. 
Blackberry, method of bearing, 45, 55. 

pruning the, 205. 
Bladder-nut, 231. 
Bladder senna, 223. 
Bleeding of vines, 281. 
Blueberry, 232. 
Bois, D., quoted, 246. 
Bolting, 87, 95. 
Bordeaux mixture for wounds, 75, 76, 

93. 
Brambles, 43. 
Branches, 15. 

how to cut, 66. 
Brehault, referred to, 253. 
Bridal Wreath, 231. 
Bridge-grafting, 81. 
Broom, 224. 
Buckeye, 221. 
Buckthorn, 221, 229. 
Buddleia, 221. 
Buffalo berry, 230. 
Bull cane, 312, 328. 
Butneria, 222. 
Button-bush, 222. 

Cables for support, 96. 
California, vine-pruning in, 346. 

vine systems, 381. 
Callicarpa, 222. 
Calluna, 222. 
Callus-ring, 61. 



401 



402 



INDEX 



Calycanthus, 222. 

Cambium, 61. 

Campsis, 222. 

Candelabrum, 248, 258. 

Candleberry, 228. 

Candytuft, evergreen, 226. 

Cane, defined, 270, 352. 

Cane-pruning of the vine, 364. 

Cankers, 84. 

Canopy trellis, 341. 

Caragana, 222. 

Card, F. W., quoted, 76. 

Catalpa, 222. 

Cavities, disinfectants for, 92. 

treating deep, 99. 
Cay wood system, 331. 
Ceanothus, 222. 
Celastrus, 222. 
Cement filling, 102. 
Cephalanthus, 222. 
Cercis, 222. 
Chsenomeles, 222. 
Chaining trees, 95. 
Chamsedaphne, 222. 
Chandler, quoted, 154, 186, 200. 
Chandler and Knapp, quoted, 72, 201. 
Chautauqua methods, 289, 292, 296, 
314. 

system of grape- training, 303. 
Cheal, J., quoted, 240. 
Checking growth, 122. 
Cherry, natural selection in, 10. 

ornamental, 228. 

pruning the, 203. 

spur, 33, 55. 

wild black, 8, 9. 
Chionanthus, 222. 
Chisels, 192. 

Chittenden, mentioned, 153. 
Cladrastis, 222. 
Clematis, 222. 

flower-habit, 47. 
Clethra, 223. 

Climate and pruning, 140, 148. 
Coal-tar for wounds, 75, 76, 93, 94, 

141. 
Coates, Leonard, quoted, 72. 
Column or spindle, 247. 
Colutea, 223. 
Come-alongs, 287. 
Conifers, pruning, 112, 115. 



Copper sulfate, 92, 93. 

Coral berry, 232. 

Corbett, L. C, quoted, 68. 

Cordon-pruning of vine, 383. 

Cordons, 236, 247, 252. 

Cornell, William T., mentioned, 320. 

Corn-husks for tying, 291. 

Comus, 223. 

Corrosive sublimate, 93. 

Co-terminal fruit-bearing, 41. 

Cotinus, 223. 

Cotoneaster, 223. 

Crab-apple, ornamental, 229. 

twig, 20, 22. 
Crataegus, 223. 
Crotch, bracing, 87. 
Creosol, 75. 
Creosote, 93, 101, 141. 
Crittenden system, 332. 
Cross- wire system, 333. 
Currant, bearing habit, 40, 55. 

ornamental, 229. 

pruning the, 208. 
Curtis, R. W., article by, 218. 
Cutting-back, 112, 119, 120, 122, 134, 

185. 
Cydonia, 224. 
Cytisus, 224. 

Daphne, 224. 

Decay, causes of, 58, 99. 

Defoliating vines, 373. 

Dehorning, 185. 

Dendroscope, 194. 

Des Cars, quoted, 71, 76, 194. 

Deutzia, 224. 

Development of flower-bud, 51. 

Devitalizing process, 6. 

Dewberry, method of bearing, 45, 55. 

pruning the, 205. 
Dextrine in spur, 134. 
Diervilla, 224. 
Dirca, 224. 

Disbudding the vine, 367. 
Disinfectants for wounds (see Dress- 
ings), 92. 
Dockmackie, 232. 
Dogwood, 223. 

Downing, A. and J., quoted, 115. 
Dressings for wounds, 66, 75, 92, 101. 
Drinkard, Jr., A. W., quoted, 52. 



INDEX 



403 



Drooping systems, 294, 320. 
Du Breuil, quoted, 235, 236, 256. 
Dwarfing, 163, 177. 
Dwarf trees, pruning, 176. 
Dyer's weed, 225 

Eight-cane Kniffin, 331. 

Elaeagnus, 224. 

Elderberry, 230. 

Electric wires, injuries from, 79. 

Enkianthus, 224. 

Epigsea, 224. 

Erica, 224. 

Espalier, 235, 242, 248, 249, 251. 

Evonymus, 225. 

Exochorda, 225. 

Experience, argument from, 14. 

Eye-bolts, 97. 

Eyes of vine, 351. 

Fan-training of grapes, 318. 
Filbert, flower-habit, 50, 55. 
Fletcher, W. F., quoted, 83. 
Formalin, 93. 
Forsythia, 225. 
Fothergilla, 225. 
Four-cane Kniffin, 321. 
Fringe tree, 222. 
Frozen trees, 113. 
Fruit-bud and leaf-bud, 19. 
Fruit-bud, chapter, 15. 
Fruit-buds, how to distinguish, 47. 
Fruit-spur of apple, 21. 

of apricot, 36. 

of cherry, 33. 

of peach, 36. 

of pear, 28. 

of plum, 33. 

of vine, 351. 
Fuller, mentioned, 268, 298. 
Fuller system, 274, 298. 
Fungi of decay, 58, 99. 

Gardeners' Chronicle, quoted, 258, 266. 
Gas-tar, 94. 
Gaucher, quoted, 183. 
Gaylussacia, 225. 
Genista, 225. 
Girdled trees, 80. 

Girdling as a practice, 122, 123, 126, 
181. 



Girdling by bands, 95. 
Gladwin, quoted, 304, 316. 
Glasshouse grape training, 345. 
Globe-flower, 226. 
Goff, quoted, 53. 
Golden-bell, 225. 
Golden-chain, 226. 
Gooseberry, bearing habit, 40, 55. 

pruning the, 208. 

training, 263, 264. 
Grafted trees, 173. 
Grafting grapes, 344. 
Grafts, natural, 87. 
Grapes, ringing, 184. 

shoots, 43. 

training, American, 267. 
vinifera, 345. 

vine, young, 275, 398. 

vines, frozen, 114. 
Grease for wounds, 75. 
Groundsel tree, 221. 
Guy wire, 96. 

Habit of plant, 114, 116. 

Hale, J. H., 172. 

Halesia, 225. 

Halimodendron, 225. 

Hamamelis, 225. 

Hardy, J. A., quoted, 251. 

Hartwig, referred to, 253. 

Hawthorn, 224. 

Hazel, flower-habit, 51, 55. 

Heading-back, 112, 119, 122, 134, 146, 

185. 
Heads, high or low, 147. 
Healing of wounds, 56, 61, 75, 141. 
Heath, 224. 
Heather, 222. 
Heavy pruning, 109. 
Hedges, 212. 

Henderson, Peter, mentioned, 126. 
Hibiscus, 225. 

flower-bearing, 47. 
Hickory, 43, 50, 55. 
High heads, 147. 
High renewal, 306. 
Hippophae, 225. 
Histories of apple twigs, 24. 
Hobble-bush, 232. 
Holly, 226. 
Honeysuckle, 227. 



404 



INDEX 



Hooks, pruning, 194. 

Horizontal-arm spur system, 298. 

Horizontal grape-training, 338. 

Horse-chestnut, 221. 

Howard, W. L., quoted, 136, 139. 

Howe, quoted, 77, 185. 

How to cut branches, 66. 

Huckleberry, 225. 

Hydrangea, 225. 

Hypericum, 226. 

Iberis, 226. 
Ilex, 226. 
Indigofera, 226. 
Inkberry, 226. 
Iodine test, 360. 
Iron rods, 87, 96. 

Japan quince, 222. 
Jarvis, quoted, 186. 
Jehle, quoted, 84. 
Judas tree, 222. 
Juneberry, 40. 
pruning, 221. 

Kalmia, 226. 

Kelley's Island system, 319. 

Kerria, 226. 

Keuka system, 316. 

Kieffer pear tree, 116, 119. 

Kniffin system, 321, 326, 329, 330, 

331, 334. 
Kniffin, William, 320. 
Knives, 189. 
Knot-holes, 58. 
Knots, 58. 
Kcelreuteria, 226. 
Koopmann, Karl, quoted, 125, 127. 

Label-wires, 79. 

Laburnum, 226. 

Lagbolts, 98. 

Laurel, Mountain, 226. 

Laurocerasus, 228. 

Lead-plant, 221. 

Lead, white, for wounds (see Paint), 

77. 
Leaf -bud and fruit^bud, 19. 
Leather-leaf, 222. 
Leatherwood, 224. 



Leiophyllum, 226. 
Lespedeza, 226. 
Leucothoe, 226. 
Ligustrum, 226. 
Lilac, flower-bearing, 46. 

pruning, 232. 

twig, 3. 
Lime-sulfur, 93. 
Lindley, quoted, 183. 
Locality and pruning, 140, 148. 
Locust, 229. 
Lonicera, 227. 
Loquat, bearing-habit, 55. 
Low heads, 147. 
Low Kniffin, 330. 
Lucas, quoted, 49, 234. 
Lycium, 227. 

Macoun, quoted, 210. 
Magnolia, 227. 
Mahonia, 227. 
Maple, Norway, 41. 

pruning, 220. 
Marv-in, D. S., quoted, 320. 
Mask, pruning, 194. 
Matrimony vine, 227. 
Meadow-sweet, 231. 
Medlar, 55. 

Meehan's Monthly, quoted, 112. 
Mending of trees, 79. 
Mock orange, 228. 
Modified Munson, 337. 
Mohrodendron, 225. 
Mountain-ash, 231. 

laurel, 226. 
Mulberry, bearing-habit, 55. 
Munson system, 335. 
Myrica, 228. 
Myrtle, Sand, 226 

Natural grafts, 87. 

selection, 7. 
Nature-study, 15. 
Nectarine, 253. 
Nemopanthus, 228. 
Neviusia, 228. 
New Jersey tea, 22. 
Newly set trees, 150. 
Ninebark, 228. 
Norway maple, 41. 
Notching. 122, 126. 127. 



INDEX 



405 



Oak, flower-habit, 50. 
Obstruction above bud, 121. 
Ocher for wounds, 77. 
Oil for wounds, 94. 
Oleaster, 224. 
Olive, bearing-habit, 55. 

wild, 224. 
One-wire Kniffin, 330. 
Orange, bearing-habit, 55. 
Oregon grape, 227. 
Ornamental plants, pruning, 214. 
Osier, 223. 
Osier for tying, 291. 
Over-bearing, 125. 
Overhead Kniffin, 331. 
Oxydendrum, 228. 

Paddock and Whipple, quoted, 23. 

Pseonia, 228. 

Pogoda tree, 231. 

Paint for wounds, 75, 76, 141. 

Palmette-verrier, 241, 242. 

Palmettes, 241, 243, 252, 258. 

Parthenocissus, 228. 

Patterns for trees, 245. 

Pavia, 221. 

Peach, buds, 36, 55. 

cutting back, 187. 

ornamental, 228. 

pruning the, 199. 

training of, 253. 

trimming young, 152, 155, 161. 
Pear, pruning the, 198. 

spur, 28. 

trimming young, 152, 161. 
Pears, dwarf, 177. 
Pea tree, 222. 
Penicillium, 93. 
Pentosans in spur, 134. 
Peony, pruning, 228. 
Persimmon, bearing-habit, 55. 
Philadelphus, 228. 
Philosophy of pruning, 3. 
Photinia, 228. 

Physiology, argument from, 11. 
Physocarpus, 228. 
Pickering, quoted, 110, 139, 153. 
Pieris, 228. 
Pinching, 134, 140. 
Pinching vines, 370. 
Plum, pruning the, 202. 



Plum, spur. 33, 55. 

trees, 146. 

trimming young, 152. 
Pollarding, 91, 189. 
Poplar, flower-habit, 50. 
Portland cement, 102. 
Post-training, 339. 
Potentilla, 228. 

Pots, trees and bushes in, 260. 
Powell, G. Harold, quoted, 203. 
Preservatives, 93. 
Principles of pruning, 107. 
Privet, 227. 
Pruning-list, 218. 
Prunings of plants, 195, 378. 
Prunus, 228. 
Pyramids, 235, 246, 249. 
Pyrus, 229. 

Queen-of-the-Meadow, 231. 
Quince, Japan, 222. 

pruning the, 204. 

shoot, 42, 55. 

Raffia for tying, 291. 

Ragan, W. H., quoted, 278, 300, 342. 

Raspberry, method of bearing, 45, 55. 

pruning the, 205. 
Rationale of pruning, 3. 
Reasons for pruning, 108. 
Red-bud, 222. 

Reinforcing the cement, 104. 
Rejuvenation by pruning. 111, 124, 

185. 
Remodeling old vines, 343. 
Renewal, grape, 269. 

Kniffin, 334. 
Renewing plants. 111, 124, 185. 
Repairing trees, 79. 
Rhamnus, 229. 
Rhododendron, 229. 
Rhodot>-pos, 229. 
Ribes, 229. 
Ringing, 181. 
Ringing-knife, 184. 
Ringing vinifera vines, 375. 
Rivers, Thomas, quoted, 249. 
Roadside trees, 89. 
Robinia, 229. 
Rods for support, 87, 96. 
Root-crown of vine, 350. 



406 



INDEX 



Rootlets of vine, 350. 
Root-pruning, 111, 163. 

vinifera vines, 376. 
Root-tips, 350. 
Rosa, species of, 230. 
Roses, flower-bearing, 46. 

pruning, 216. 
Rubus, 230. 
Rural New-Yorker, quoted, 83. 

St. John's- Wort, 226. 

Salix, 230. 

Salt tree, 225. 

Sambucus, 230. 

Sand Myrtle, 226. 

Sargent, Professor, quoted, 71. 

Saws, 189. 

Scaffold limbs, 149, 159. 

Scotch heather, 222. 

Season for grape-pruning, 280, 296, 

356. 
Season of pruning, 73, 136. 
Shad-bush, 221. 
Shade-trees. 88, 213. 
Shearing, 146. 
Shears, 189. 

Shellac for wounds, 77, 94. 
Shepherdia, 230. 
Shoot, defined, 270, 351. 
Shredding, 126. 
Shrubbery, pruning, 214. 
Six-cane Kniffin, 330. 
Smoke-bush, 223. 
Snowberry, 231. 
Sophora, 231. 
Sorauer, quoted, 137. 
Sorbaria, 231. 
Sorbus, 231. 
Sour sap, 139. 
Specific advice, 145. 
Spencer, John W., quoted, 289, 292, 

296. 
Spice-bush, 221. 
Spindle form, 247. 
Spindle-tree, 225. 
Spiraea, 231. 

Spirea, flower-bearing, 46. 
Splitting of crotches, 87. 
Spraying, 108. 
Spring-flowering plants, 46. 
Spuds, 194. 



Spur of apple, 21. 

apricot, 36. 

cherry, 33. 

of grape, defined, 269, 273, 351. 

of peach, 36. 

of pear, 28. 

of plum, 33. 
Spur-pruning of the vine, 362. 
Stagger-bush, 228. 
Staking vinifera vines, 394. 
Standard, 235. 
Staphylea, 231. 
Starch content of spur, 134. 

test for, 360. 
Starnes, quoted, 337. 
Stephanandra, 231. 
Stewartia, 231. 

Stone, George E., article by, 88. 
Strawberry-bush, 225. 
Strawberry pruner, 195. 
Straw for tying, 291. 
Street^trees, 88, 213. 
Stringfellow, H. M., 166. 
Stripping of vineyards, 281. 
Stubs, 67. 
Styrax, 231. 

Subsequent treatment, 166. 
Suckering vines, 368. 
Summer-flowering plants, 46. 
Summer pruning, 136, 140, 258 

of grapes, 282, 365. 
Sun-scald, 148. 

Supports for vinifera vines, 394. 
Surgery, tree, 88. 
Symphoricarpos, 231. 
SjTiiplocos, 232. 
Syringa, 232. 

Tailored bushes, 214. 
Tallow for wounds, 75. 
Tap-hole, 64. 
Tap-root, 116. 

of vine, 350. 
Tea, New Jersey, 222. 
Test for starch, 360. 
Thimbleberry, 230. 
Thinning, 131. 

fruit on the vine, 374. 

shoots of vine, 367. 
Thomas, mentioned, 267. 
Thomson, David, quoted, 253. 



INDEX 



407 



Thom. 223. 

Thyloses, 377. 

Time for grape-pruning, 280, 296, 356. 

Time of pruning, 73, 136. 

Tomato-pruning, 110. 

Tools, 92, 189. 

Tools for vine-pruning, 379. 

Topping, 90. 

Topping young vines, 367, 371 

Top, shaping the, 159. 

Top- worked trees, 173. 

Tracy, S. M., quoted, 303. 

Trained trees, 234. 

Training, modes of, 233. 

Tree surgery, 88. 

Trellis, for grapes, 283, 396. 

Trumpet-creeper, 222. 

Trunk, length of, 148. 

Twisting, 126. 

the \'ine, 354. 
Two-cane KnifBn, 329. 
T5ing grapes, 291, 313. 

Udale,James,quoted, 198, 203,211,212. 
Umbrella training, 329. 
Upright systems, 294, 298. 

Vaccinium, 232. 

Varnish tree, 226. 

Vase-form, 256. 

Veitch and Sons, 266. 

Viburnum, 232. 

Vine-pruning in California, 346. 

Vines, remodeling old, 343. 

young, 275, 398. 
Vinifera grape-training, 345. 
Vinifera systems, 380. 
Virginia creeper, 228. 
Vitex, 232. 
Vitis Labrusca, 345. 

vinifera, 345, 346. 

Wakeman, Elbert, 336. 
Wakeman system, 335. 



Wall-trees, 239, 240. 
Walnut, flower-habit, 50. 55 
Warneken, H. B., quoted, 261. 
Watersprouting \dnes, 369. 
Watersprouts, 109, 117, 174. 

of vine, 352. 
Waxes for wounds, 75. 
Wayfaring tree, 232. 
Weeping of vines, 281. 
Weigela, 224. 

When to cut branches, 73, 136. 
When to prune grapes, 280, 296, 

356. 
White lead for wounds (see Paint), 

77. 
White zinc for wounds, 77. 
Whitford, Leroy, quoted, 83. 
Willow, 230. 

flower-habit, 50. 

for tying, 291. 
Winter-injured trees, 113. 
Wire arches, 243. 
Wire for trellis, 285. 

for tying, 291. 

for support, 96. 
Wisteria, 232. 
Witch-hazel, 225. 
Withe-rod, 232. 
Woadwax, 225. 
Wobum Experimental Fruit Farm. 

110, 139, 153. 
Woodbine, 228. 
Wool-twine for tying, 291. 
Wounds, 56, 61, 75, 92, 141. 

vinifera vines, 376. 

Yellow ocher for wounds, 77. 
Yellow-wood, 222. 
Yeomans, quoted, 178. 
Young trees, trimming, 150. 
\ines, 275, 398. 

Zenobia, 232. 

Zinc, white, for wounds, 77. 



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